,,,
.
.
................................................................................................ 3
1. - ................... 15
1 .................... 15
2 - 1979 . 33
3 1979 1992 - . 52
4 90- 20 , 1997 ................................................ 90
2. : ........................................................................ 106
1. XX ................. 106
2. ........................................................... 110
3. ............................................................................................. 125
4. .............................................................................. 129
5. 90- XX ................................................................. 145
..................................................................................... 174
................................................................................ 179
.
, , , , , , .
, , , , .
, , . , . . , . , , .
, . , . .
, .
, , , . , .
.
, 18 , , . , .
: ; , ; , ; ; ; * . [1].
, 21 . , : ; ; , , - ; , , , , [2].
, , , . , , (, ), [3].
, , . , , , 21 .
5-6 ; , , . , , , , , . .
, .
.
, , .
. . -, , , , , .. . -, - , . . , . -, - , . -, , , , : , , , . , , , , , .
: , 20 , . : , , , .. , . ? , , , .
, , , . , . , ; , .
, , , . , ; , , .. .
, . . , , . , , .
. , , . , .
, , . , . , . , .
, : .
, , , .
. .
.
.
. : (1974), (1983), (1985), (1984).
. , , .., .., .., .., .., , , , .., .., .., .., .., .., .., .., .., .., .. - , .. .., ., ., ., ..
. .. , . .. , . .. 1979 . - , - - - . .. , - , .
. . , .
, , , .
. - . , . . , . . - XX . . - . .
-. .. , .. , .. , .. , .. . - .. . .. . - 80- - 90- . " ".
- .., ... ... .., ... " " .. . ... . . .. . " " .. .
. :
- . . : , , 1993 .
- . , , 1992 .
- . : . , " ", 1992 .
- . , , 1991 .
- . . , -- . : . , , 1990 .
- .. : . .: ., ., " - ", , , 1992 .
- .. - . , , 1984 .
- (. ). , , 1984 .
- (. . , ). : , , , 1992 .
- : . , 1990 .
- , " ", -- , 1992 ., [1]. --, 1992 .
- .. . " , ", , 1986 ., N 562.
- . " - ", 1992 .
- .. . " ", , 1992, N 17, . 539.
- .. . " ", , 1992, N 86, . 46.
- . . " , ", , 1993 .
- . . " : ", : : , - - , 1992 .
- . " : , , 1989-1990 .", , 1990 .
- . . . " : ", , 1993, N 7, . 73.
- . . " ", , 1991, N 12, . 353.
- .. . " ", , 1988, N 1, . 77.
- . . . " : ", : . - - , 1992 .
, , . , , . , , , , - . , . , , , , , - . , , , , .
, , ; ( ) , , , (, ), , ( ). .
, . . , , , 51% , , , , 21%, , . (first past the post). . . ( ), , , , , . , , , , . .
, , , . , . 1979 635, 516 , 71 , 36 12 . 1997 659[4]. , , . , , - , , . , . , [5]. , . 16-19 .., , . 1831 , , , , , , , , . 19 , . 8-12 ( - 1991.)[6] , , . , , . .
. , , , , , .
- . : . , , , . , . , , . , , . .
16 15 [7]. , . . , . , , , , , , , , .
, 18 , , . , . , , 20 , [8].
: ; , ; , ; ; ; * . [9].
, 21 . , : ; ; , , - ; , , , , [10].
, , . .
, , , , .
- , . - , , - . 17 ( ) [11]; , , , 3-4 . 1997 - ( - ) .
, 12 [12]. , , , , (.. ). , . . , , .
, . , , , . . 35 .
500 (.. ), , 5 [13].
. 4642 3,9 4642 5,2 [14]. , , , . , .
. , . , , . , , . , .
, , . , , , , ( ). - , , .
, ( , ), , . . , , [15].
80- . 90- , . , , ( )[16].
. ( ) . , - , . .
, , . , , .
, - . , . 50 [17].
, , , , . , . , , , . , , , , , , , .
, [18]. :
;
, ;
, ;
, ;
: , ;
, ;
. 1000 2000 , , , .
7 22 . .
: ; , ; ; .
, , , . , , (, ), [19].
, , - . .-. [20], . (, ) , (, ), - , , , . . . .-. . .
, , . , , . , , , , . , , , .
, , ( ). , , . , . , . . , , , . , , . , . . [21].
, . , , .
, , , , . , , - , . ( ). , . . , . [22].
22 . ( , , , , , ). , , , , , .
. , , . . , , , , , , .
, , . , . .
. , , . . , , , .
, . . , .
, , . , , , 21 . . , , . , , 1923 [23].
5-6 ; , , . , , , , , . .
, , , , , , , , . , , , , .
. , . . , . , , .
, . , . .
, .
- 1832 . , . - . ( , ).
, . , - , . , , , , , . , . 300 , , . , , .
. 1832 , . 1867, 1884 1918 - . , . , - . ( 1832 . - )[24]. , . . , .
, , 70 , 71%(.. )[25]. . , , . , , , .
, , . , , ( ) . , . , , , , , . , ( ) .
, [26]. . , . . 1950-, 1980- 1990- . . 1832 . . - .
, - , - . . , . , , , , . , [27]. , , XX , .
. , 70- - 80- . . - , 1900 , , . . 1922 , . 1922-1923 1924 . .
XX . . 1922 , 50 70-, - 20 , (1945-1950, 1966, 1974 ..). 1950- , 1979 [28]. 80- , , . , . - , .
, 60- 70- .[29], , . , 1970 . , - , . , , , , , , .
, 堠 ࠠ , , - . 頠 , , ( , , ꠠ )[30]. 堠 , .
堠 ࠠ ࠠ ࠠ 1974 . 蔠 , , , . , . , , 1970 . , ࠠ 젠 , , 1974 . . 蔠 [31].
, , , 60- . - , . , . . , , , . , , , , . , , , , . , , , , , .
ࠠ 堠 , , 70- - 頠 , . 60- , , , , , , [32]. 젠 , . , , , 堠 , , , . ࠠ , 堠 , , , , [33], , , 1970 ., .
, , , , . . , , , , . , , . . , , , , , , , , , . , .
, , 蔠 . , , 頠 蠠 , . : ; , ; . . 頠 ⠠ ( ) , , , . , , , , [34]. [35]. , , , , , , , .
, , , , 1974 1979 ., . , . , , - .
, 70- . , 1974 ., , , 1979 .
1970. , , , , . , 70- - , , . 60- . . . 60- 70- ,
1970 . : , , , [36].
- , , , [37]. 1973 . [38].
, , , , , , . 70- . 1973 . . , . , 1975 . [39] , - .
, , , , . , , . , , , . .
, , , , [40], , , , .
- , 70- . , . , ( 70 ) , , .
(19741975 .) , : , , , , . , , , .
- . 1970 . . . .
( )[41]. , ( ), ( ), . . , , 19771978 . , , , . .
- , . 70- . , 50- 60- [42], , , . , , . 20- , , , . , , , ( ), ( - ) .
70- , . 1972 1973 . . , , , . [43]. . 1972 . . , , 1974 . . . 1977 . - , . , , ( , ), () , . . , , . , ( ).
, : , 1974 ., . , , , .
, 1978 . , . 1979 ,
3 1979 . , . - , . , , . 13 , . - - , . , . 1978 - , . , , . , . , , 1978 , [44]. 1978-1979 , , , - . 29,5 [45]. ( 16% 5%), , . . , -, . , 1975-1978 , .
, 1979 , , . , . - . 1974 , , , . . , 1 1979 , , , 젠 .
, . , , , . : 1979 , ( 52 95 ) 6 7 , , , , , . (40%), (49%) [46]. 1974 . 56% , 1979. - 32%[47].
, - , , , . , , , . , , , , . , , , , .
, , . . , , . , , , ( )[48].
, , , , , . , , . , . , , 2300 . , , , .
, , , , . , , , , . , , - . , , , . , . . . , 3 . , 5 . . , , . - , , , , , , , . . , , . , . , : 1974 ! , : ! , , - , . , , -, [49].
. , , , , , . , , . , , , .
, , , , , .
3 1979 . . 7% , , - 43,9 36,9%. 1945 [50].
, , , , , ., , , . 1979 40 . , 1979 . -, , . , - .
1979 ., , , , , . : - . , , , . , . , , . , . , , .
, (339 635). 268 , -11, - 2 , - 10 - 2 [51].
, , 1945-1970 ., - ( 1964 .) 46 49% [52]. 1974 . , , - .
1979. , , . , . 60- 70- ( ), , , .
19791981 .., , , ( , , , ), , . , , . , 1973[53]. 1981 . . . . . , . . , . 1981. , - (), () .
, 1981 ., , 3545% [54], , , . , 1982. , , , , .
. , , . . . , . , . 1981 . , .
. , , , . 348 . 1980 . 274 . 1982 . ( 6511 . 1979 . 6185 1982.)[55], , .
- , . , , , ( , ) - . , , , 70- .
, , , , 7080- . , , , , , - . , , . , , , .
, 1979 , , . , . 1979 , . 1981 , - . 1981 , . . , . , - .1981 , -. , , . , - , (, ). . . - 70- ̸ , . - . , , , . , . , ( ), . , , -: , , , , , , , . , - - .
, , . . , , 1981 , , , , , [56]. , . 1982 , , , . , , . 2 1982 , . 1981 . , . , , [57]. , 1833 . . , , , , , . 1981 . , , , , , [58].
, . 1981 . , , , , . , 1982 . , ( ), .
. . , . , , , , , .
2 . , , , , . . , , .
-, , , , . , , . . . , , , . . . - , . , , , , .
2 1982 . , , 321 . . , , . , 21 , .
, , , , . , , . , , , . , [59].
- , , 8 . , . , , . , .
25 . . 21 , . , . , , .
(255 650 ) . , , . 1981 . , , 27 25%, 48 59%[60].
, , . , , , .
, , , . - - .
1984 , 9 1983 . 19821983 . - , , , , .
1979 , ( 1,4 % 44,9 43,5 %), , , 28,3 %. 1979 , (37,8 %) , 1983 . 1918 . . , 26 % , 2 , 1979 (13,8%) 2,3% , [61].
, . , , (209 23 ).
, , .
, , , . , , , , , . . . . 36 37 % , 27% .[62]
. 1983 . , 39 %. , 1964 73 % -, 1966 71, 1970 . 66, 1974 55 1979 . 51 % 22. 32 % , 1 % , 1979 ., - 28 %, 15 % , 1979 [63].
, , , , , 28 % , . . , , (47 %) [64].
, , , , . , ( )
, . , , , 17 %, 11 %[65].
. , , , , , . , , , [66]. , .
. , .
. , , , , [67]. , , , , . , - , , , , . . , , - .
, , , , .
, , . 1983 . , , . , , . , . , , , 1983 . . , 80- . , [68], , , , . , 80-x , 1984 . , ( ) . . - , , ( 1986 . ). . , .
, , . 1985 . , . 1986 . . , , . , 1985 . 35%- ( 40%), . , - [69]. 1983 . 1987 ( , ) . , , .
1987 ., , , . , , .
, 1983 ., . 1987 . - , 24 % . - 16,8 %. , - . 1987 . , , , 40 %, (36 %). ( 43 48 %) [70].
, ., . , , . , 10 70 . - , , , , . , - , [71].
, , , . 1987 . , , 19831986 ., , . , , , .. , . ( ) , .
- , 1987 . 6 , . . - . . 1988 . . . . 1988 . . , 88,6 % , . 66,8 %. . 11,4 %, . 9.5 %. , . , , 23,7 %[72].
1987 . . . , - . , . . (. , . . ), , , . . , . 1988 . - .
70- 80- , , . , , , - , , , , , , , , . , , - . , 1989 . 1990 10-15%. 1989-1990 . , [73].
, , 1990 , - [74]. , 28 1990 , , 1987 . , - 蠠 , , . . . , , , . , . - .
The Gardian : - [75]. , , , . . 1989 ., . . , , , . - , , , : - - , , [76]. . . , , . 蠠 .
80- 90- , . , . ( , 1986 ). , [77] , ; , - ; ; ; . , . 1990 . : [78]. , .
. , ., . , . , .. , .
, , 40-60- , , .
, , - , . .. , .. , , . , . , , , , - . , .
1990 , . - .
, . , . . , , ., , - , , , ..
, , . 90- [79]. , , .
. - , , , , . , . , , . . , .[80]
, , , [81]. , , , .
, 1991. . . , , . , . ( ) . , ( ).
, , , , , 1992 . , . , . , 1992 , 32 , , , :
1. , , .
2. , .
3. , . , , .
4. Back to Basics .
5. . , .
6. (ENF) , .
7. , .
8. , 23 , 27. .
9. , . , , . , , , , . , , ( ) [82].
41,9% 34,4%. 17,8%, 338, 271 20[83]. , , , . . , 4- ( , . , , , , , .
, , , , - , , , , . , , , -. , . , .
1994 , . , , . , , , [84]. , , , . , 5 , , , , , , .
, - . , . , - 4 , 1918 . , . , , . , , , [85]. , , , . 1994 [86]. [87], ( ). .
, 28% (26,5%) 1993 . 49% (51,5%), - 20% (17,5%). , , . 12% , (22% 1990 ) 20% . , ( ) -. 50% . 70%[88].
, , 1997 . . -, , , , 1951 , -, 26 . -, , 4.3% , , 1945 . .
, 1996 , , , 17 ( ) , . [89], , , , . , , , 16%, - :
54%,
28%,
12%.
Narrowing
The Economists poll of polls[90]
Sources:
MORI; ICM; NOP; Gallup
, 474 , 142, 26 . , , 10 , , .
. - , : 䠠 , , ⠠ ࠠ - .
. , , . , , - , - , . , 18 頠 , , , .
, , 28 , . , , .[91]
, 1995 ., 蠠 젠 젠 . , , , ( 27 1997 .), 17% .[92]
, , , , , . [93]
, : , . , .
, , , . , , , , .
, . , , ,
, , , . , , , , , 1997 , , ( - ). , .
, ( 1995 1997 12 ), 10%, 1993 , , - 22 1997 .[94]
, : . , , .
, , , , . , , . , , , , , . - . , - , -, .
. . . . 1993 101 . , , , , . . , , - , . 101 , , .
, , , .
, , , , , . , , , , , . New Statesman[95], 1996 , , : , . , .
, , , . , , . , , . , , , .
, - , - , , .[96] , , . , , , . - , , . . , , ࠠ . , , : , .
, , , , , , , . , ! , , , . , . , . : , . . , - , .[97] . , . .
, , . ( 45%) ( 1945 1950 . , , 49 47%), (419 659), , , 179.[98] 35 , 1983 ., .
, . . , .
- , - . , , 160 , , 8. , , 165 (25,7% ).[99] , - 90 . , 2.5 , , 2/3 (65,4%) .[100]
, , , - .
, - , - .
(17%), , 1983 ., , 1983 . : , ( ) , , - . , , , . - , .
, , , , . , , 22% , . , .
, , , . , , -.
, . , , . , , .
, , , . 80- , - [101].
, , , .
80-90 20- , , , , .
, . :
.
.
.
, , .
, . , . 1945 . 1970 , . , . . 1974, 1979 1997 .
. - (British election studies) 60- .
1964 , - . 1964, 1966 1970 . . . . [102]. - 1974 ( ) 1979 . : 1964-1974 ., ., . .; . [103]; . . : 1979 70- . [104].
, 1983 . . 1983 , 1983 .
.
, , . :
1. , , ,
2. , () (. . , ).
3. , , , , .
4. (. . ) .
5. , , , (occupation), , , .
, , .
80- 20 , . - 70- 80- . . , -, , 1979 1983 . ., , , .
, , - , -, ( , ); -, (vocality) , . . , , ( ) , (swing).
, .
( , ) (. . ).
. : [105].
1945-1970 . . , , . 1970 . , : 90 % , 98 % ( ) , 44.
1945 , , . , . . : . , , , , ( ) - .
, , , , - , , , . , .
1951 , : " ", " " . , , , . , , , , . , " ", , .
1964 , . 1964 - ; 1970 - ; 1974 - , 1979 - . . , : , . , , , - , , . - : "stop-go" ( ).
1951 . 1964 . 1966 ., . , " ", 1970 . . 1967 ., " ", .
1974 . . , , " ." , , " " 1978\79 . . . 3 1979 . 18 . . .
( 43 ) 3 1979 ( , , - ), , , . , - . .
: . , .
1970 . : , .
. 1951 . 30 , , 1983 . .
- . , . , , , : , . , - . : " - ". , . , , , . : "-, - , : " ?"; " - " - , . " " , , , , , .
, : . ( - ), . ( ), ( ), . ( ), . ( ( 83- - ), ( 83 . - ) . ) , - " "; , , , 2-3 .
, "" , . , ""[106], , , .
, " " , ( . ). , , "".
(" " -. ) - . , , "" "". :
- , - ;
( ) - , ;
- , ;
;
( ) - .
. - - (, ) 95%, - 75%. . , ( ).
, - .
, . ( ) . ( 4 . ), , . , .
, , - . , , . , - , , , ( , , ).
. , , . , , , , , . , , , .
, , , , , , . , , " ".
, . , " " . , , , , , , , , , , . , . , , : , , , , , . , .
" " - . , , : " , , , - ", - , .
, , , , . - , : , . ( ), , , : , , .
, -, , , . - , , , , , . , , . , , .
: , , , , . , - .
, , . , . , . , - , , .
1981 - , , . ( ), .. , , . - , . 9 - . , , "" , . : " , "; " ". , , . , , , ( , - ). , - 10 , 60 , . " , " - - , . ? , - ? , - .
. , , " ". , , , . . . : - .
, , 80-81 81-82 . , , "" - . , , - (.. 85- - 6 , ) .
, 1983 . : 42, 4 %, 1,5 % , 1979 ., 50- . . . 46 % 60- .. 28 % 1983 . 30 2/5 [107].
, . , , .
, , 1970, 2 % , ; , 1983 . 5,3 %.
1964 . 1979 . , , 24 31 %.
1983 . , 52 %, 28 %; : 14 %, 26 % .
1979 1983 . . : , , . , , , , .
, .
, . 1983 , , , .
, (. . ). .
, , . 1983 13 % 18 22 , 65 46 %.
, , .
. , , .
: ( ) (manual) ( ) (nonmanual).
, , . , , , . . , .
. , , , . . , - , , , , , . , , 1983 58 %, , , 1959 . 69 %[108].
, , . 80-90 . . 20 . 1979 1983 . . , . 1983 - , , . , , 1983 , , , , , , 頠 , , - .
" " " " "⠠ ", .. , . , . , , : . " , ".
60- . .[109] , , . " - , .
, . - "" , . . , , " " , .
" ", . , - - .
60-70- . . 1981 ., "" , " ", - . 1979-1981 ., , 29 -.
, (alignments) . , , 60- , . : , " " 50- , " ", .
, 堠 "". " " - , , ..
- , 頠 , 60- , .
" " , " ...", 1986 [110].
, - "".
"" - , . , "", , , , ""; , , , "'' .
"" " "' - . " ". ⠠ , , " " , " " .
: ࠠ , , 26% 1945 . 51% 1985 . ( 頠 ) - 75 5% . , , , , .
, , - 젠 . , , , " ", , "" , . , "" 頠 " ". . " " (.. ), . , " 80% 80% , ' , , , , . " , , - 80- , 50-".
, , , " ", "", "".
" " , ., . ..
"堠 "[111] , - , , . , " " : , , , 頠 ( ). , , , "" ".
: ࠠ 1964-1985 .". , - - "" . " , - , - , , , . , ".
"" - " " (issue - voting) - 1979 .
" ".
, , . , , , - . " ", , , " ".
, , , . - (, , ) 29% - 3/4 ". 堠 " - 71% "" - , , . - 13%. "" 23%. " "" - 60% "" - . - 46%. , " ", "", .
. -, " " , , , , "" - - . -, , . : " ⠠ " . : "... (policy opinions) , ". , " ", 9% , , 10% . , " " 20% 21% - . " " "" - 69%.
"", , , , "" . "" "堠 () 堠 ()" " ", "". 40% 1979 . "", "" .
- "" - , "" , . "" , , , .
, , , . , "", , " " . "" , , , , .
, , ... , , , . , , , , . 蠠 " " " ", . , . , , . : " ", .
, , , " , , , - - .
, , [112];
1) ;
2) ; 3) ; 4) ; 5) ; 6) - (12, . 18-19) " " 98% - 99%.
"" , .. 蠠 , , " " . " ", " " , "" . , , 젠 "" ""
, " ", , , . , - - " ".
" " " ", , , " ". "" "" , "" . , , , " ".
" , - , , 堠 . , , , , 1970 ., , . , ", " , " ". " ", , .
, , ., "" (behavioral contagion).
[113], , - "" " . , , , "", "" ( ) . "", , . " () , , ".
, . "" " ", "" , "" .
, , " ", " , , " ", "".
' ", .[114]. , , .
" ", , "": - , , - , .
, , , .
- " ". , , .
, - . " ". "" .
" , , -, , - " ...", - , . , 堠 "" .
, ... , , , - "" ", . 1979 . (81%) , , , .
, 20 , "" , , 蠠 - " ", .
"" "" , : .
, , . "" "" " " ''". () "", , " ".
, , . , , "" , : , , , , "" , .
, , , , , "'' , - , , , , - .
"" , , - .
"" .
, " " , , .
, , . . . , . , , , , . , "" .
1987 . Ÿ , .
1987 . " ", , " ", " , " " ". 1992 . , , , 80- . . .
1997 . . , , - , .
, 60- , . , 1997 . (" "). . , , ( 1951 . 97% , 1992 . - 76%). " " - , - .
, . 50- . , . " ", 1945-1951 ., , , ( ) . , , . , , . , 1951 . 30% , 1992 . - 67%. 1979-1992 . , " ", "" .
, 20-30- . , .
"" , , . . , , .
1997 . "", , , , . , .
1997 . 165 (336 1992 .), - 419 (271 1992 .), 179 . 1906 . 43,2% - 1966 . 31% - 1832 . 10% - . 13,5 . , 1951 . - .
, , , 1970 . 50- . - 71,5% - 1935 . 31% . , 65% 43,2% . , "" "", , , .
, , . - , . , 80- . , , . , . , " ".
, , , , . , 90- . , .
XX , , , , .
90- . " " , , . " ", " ", . 2001 . . " " , (). 1997 ., 50 . " ", , " ". , .
, " ", . 80- , , , . 1998 . , . - , , , " " - . 2000 .
90- . 1998 . " - ", , . " , - , - " "... , . , ".
XX . , . . , 60-70- , , , , .
XX " ", , . , , , . 90- .
. , , .
, " ". 6 . . " ", , . 200 18 24 . , , 2000 . 1 . , 1975 .
1999 . 3 .. 18 21 3,6 .. , , . - 10% ( 4 .., - 3,5 .. 4,6 ..). 2000 . 3,2 3,7 .[115].
21 , 40% . , 50% , . . , , . .
. , (78,45 .. 121,95 .. ). 11,45 15 .. 9 10 .. - . . 6 . .. . 5 7 , 30 , .
, . , . , 1999 . . - . . 1000 " ". .
, (91 750 ). - - 1997 . - , - . , , , , .
, 1998 . 70% . 1974 . .
, , . , , , . , " ". " " , . .
" " - , , , , , , - . , " ", - ", ".
" " , . . . , , , , , , , . , - -? , 2000 ., , , ?
, , , , , . XX , .
" " -. , 1945-1951 ., . 70- . 90- , "" .
XXI . [116], . , . .
, -. . , -, .
, . , , , . , -, : ", , 150- . , ". , , , , : "- , , , ".
- " ". " ", . , . , " / ", . -, - . 1999 . . , , , .
, -, , . " " " , - " ", , - , . , . - ; , , , .
2001 - 53 % 7 [117]. Gallup, " ". 27 % . - , , 15 % .
, . , , , , " " (spin doctors) [118].
" ", , . , "" (infotainment).
" ", , , - - . , , , . - , . , , , , , .
, , , , , . , , , , .
, , (Millbank Tower) " " 3 . , , (James Carville), " ". (Michael Cockerell), , : " - . , - , , - ".
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