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The
Degree work
«BRITISH MONARCHY
AND ITS INFLUENCE
UPON GOVERNMENTAL INSTITUTIONS»
Dunaeva Nina
Contents
Part One
INTRODUCTION
The
United kingdom of
Direct meaning of the word «monarchy»............................................. 6
The British constitutional monarchy..................................................... 7
Part Two
HISTORY OF THE MONARCHY
Kings and Queens of England................................................................ 9
The Anglo-Saxon Kings......................................................................... 9
The Normans......................................................................................... 23
The Angevins........................................................................................ 30
TOC o "1-3" The Plantagenets................................................................................... 33
The Lancastrians................................................................................... 42
TOC o "1-3" The Yorkists.......................................................................................... 46
The Tudors............................................................................................ 48
The Stuarts............................................................................................. 58
The Commonwealth Interregnum................................................ 63
The Hanoverians................................................................................... 75
Saxe-Coburg-Gotha.............................................................................. 85
The House of Windsor......................................................................... 87
Part Three
THE MONARCHY TODAY
The Queen’s role................................................................................... 91
Queen’s role in the modern State........................................................ 91
Queen and Commonwealth.................................................................. 91
Royal visits............................................................................................ 92
The Queen’s working day.................................................................... 92
Ceremonies and pageantry................................................................... 92
The Queen’s ceremonial duties............................................................ 93
Royal pageantry and traditions............................................................ 93
Royal succession................................................................................... 93
The Royal Household........................................................................... 93
Royal Household departments............................................................. 94
Recruitment........................................................................................... 94
Anniversaries......................................................................................... 95
Royal finances....................................................................................... 95
Head of State expenditure 2000-01.................................................... 95
Sources of funding................................................................................ 96
Financial arrangements of The Prince of Wales................................. 96
Finances of the other members of the Royal Family......................... 96
Taxation................................................................................................. 97
Royal assets........................................................................................... 97
Symbols................................................................................................. 98
National anthem.................................................................................... 98
Royal Warrants..................................................................................... 99
Bank notes and coinage...................................................................... 100
Stamps................................................................................................. 102
Coats of Arms..................................................................................... 103
Great Seal............................................................................................ 104
Flags..................................................................................................... 105
Crowns and jewels.............................................................................. 105
Transport............................................................................................. 105
Cars...................................................................................................... 106
Carriages.............................................................................................. 107
The Royal Train.................................................................................. 108
Royal air travel.................................................................................... 109
Part Four
THE ROYAL FAMILY
Members of the Royal Family........................................................... 111
HM The Queen................................................................................... 111
HRH
The Duke of
HRH The Prince of Wales and family.............................................. 112
HRH
The Duke of
TRH
The Earl and Countess of
HRH Princess Royal........................................................................... 112
HRH Princess Alice............................................................................ 113
TRH
The Duke and Duchess of
TRH
The Duke and Duchess of
TRH
Prince and Princess Michael of
HRH Princess Alexandra................................................................... 114
Memorial Plaque
HM Queen Elizabeth The Queen Mother............................... 115
HRH The Princess Margaret..................................................... 115
Diana, Princess of
Part Five
ART AND RESIDENCES
The Royal Collection......................................................................... 116
About the Royal Collection............................................................... 116
The Royal Collection Trust............................................................... 117
Royal Collection Enterprises............................................................. 117
Publishing........................................................................................... 118
Royal Residences................................................................................ 118
Royal Collection Galleries................................................................. 118
Loans.................................................................................................... 119
The Royal Residences........................................................................ 119
About the Royal Residences.............................................................. 119
The Queen’s
Gallery,
The Royal Mews................................................................................. 121
Frogmore............................................................................................. 122
The
Balmoral Castle................................................................................... 123
St James’s Palace................................................................................ 124
Historic residences.............................................................................. 124
Bibliography................................................................................ 126
UNITED KINGDOM OF GREAT BRITAIN AND NORTHERN IRELAND
Sovereign: Queen Elizabeth II (1952)
Government:
The
Prime Minister: Tony Blair (1997)
Area: 94,525 sq mi (244,820 sq km)
Population (2003 est.): 60,094,648 (growth rate: 0.1%); birth rate: 11.0/1000; infant mortality rate: 5.3/1000; density per sq mi: 636
Capital and largest city (2000
est.):
Other large cities:
Monetary unit: Pound sterling (£)
Languages: English, Welsh, Scots Gaelic
Ethnicity/race: English 81.5%; Scottish 9.6%; Irish 2.4%; Welsh 1.9%; Ulster 1.8%; West Indian, Indian, Pakistani, and other 2.8%
Religions: Church of England
(established church),
Literacy rate: 99% (1978)
Economic summary: GDP/PPP (2000
est.): $1.36 trillion; per capita $22,800. Real growth rate: 3%. Inflation:
2.4%. Unemployment: 5.5%. Arable land: 25%. Agriculture: cereals,
oilseed, potatoes, vegetables; cattle, sheep, poultry; fish. Labor force: 29.2
million (1999); agriculture 1%, industry 19%, services 80% (1996 est.). Industries:
machine tools, electric power equipment, automation equipment, railroad
equipment, shipbuilding, aircraft, motor vehicles and parts, electronics and
communications equipment, metals, chemicals, coal, petroleum, paper and paper
products, food processing, textiles, clothing, and other consumer goods. Natural
resources: coal, petroleum, natural gas, tin, limestone, iron ore, salt,
clay, chalk, gypsum, lead, silica, arable land. Exports: $282 billion
(f.o.b., 2000): manufactured goods, fuels, chemicals; food, beverages, tobacco.
Imports: $324 billion (f.o.b., 2000): manufactured goods, machinery,
fuels; foodstuffs. Major trading partners:
Communications: Telephones: main lines in use: 34.878 million (1997); mobile cellular: 13 million (yearend 1998). Radio broadcast stations: AM 219, FM 431, shortwave 3 (1998). Radios: 84.5 million (1997). Television broadcast stations: 228 (plus 3,523 repeaters) (1995). Televisions: 30.5 million (1997). Internet Service Providers (ISPs): 245 (2000). Internet users: 19.47 million (2000).
Transportation: Railways: total: 16,878 km (1996). Highways: total: 371,603 km; paved: 371,603 km (including 3,303 km of expressways); unpaved: 0 km (1998 est.). Waterways: 3,200 km. Ports and harbors: Aberdeen, Belfast, Bristol, Cardiff, Dover, Falmouth, Felixstowe, Glasgow, Grangemouth, Hull, Leith, Liverpool, London, Manchester, Peterhead, Plymouth, Portsmouth, Scapa Flow, Southampton, Sullom Voe, Tees, Tyne. Airports: 489 (2000 est.).
International disputes: Northern Ireland issue with Ireland (historic peace agreement signed 10 April 1998); Gibraltar issue with Spain; Argentina claims Falkland Islands (Islas Malvinas); Argentina claims South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands; Mauritius and the Seychelles claim Chagos Archipelago (UK-administered British Indian Ocean Territory); Rockall continental shelf dispute involving Denmark and Iceland; territorial claim in Antarctica (British Antarctic Territory) overlaps Argentine claim and partially overlaps Chilean claim; disputes with Iceland, Denmark, and Ireland over the Faroe Islands continental shelf boundary outside 200 NM.
DIRECT MEANING OF THE WORD «MONARCHY»
Monarchy, form of government
in which sovereignty is vested in a single person whose right to rule is
generally hereditary and who is empowered to remain in office for life. The
power of this sovereign may vary from the absolute to that strongly limited by
custom or constitution. Monarchy has existed since the earliest history of
humankind and was often established during periods of external threat or
internal crisis because it provided a more efficient focus of power than aristocracy or democracy, which tended to diffuse
power. Most monarchies appear to have been elective originally, but dynasties
early became customary. In primitive times, divine descent of the monarch was
often claimed. Deification was general in ancient
Constitutional monarchy: System of government in which a monarch has agreed to share power with a
constitutionally organized government. The monarch may remain the de facto head
of state or may be a purely ceremonial head. The constitution allocates the
rest of the government's power to the legislature and judiciary.
THE BRITISH CONSTITUTIONAL MONARCHY
"The British Constitutional Monarchy was the consequence of the Glorious Revolution of 1688, and was enshrined in the Bill of Rights of 1689. Whereby William and Mary in accepting the throne, had to consent to govern 'according to the statutes in parliament on."
A monarch does not have to curry favour for votes from any section of the community.
A monarch is almost invariably more popular than an Executive President,
who can be elected by less than 50% of the electorate and may therefore
represent less than half the people. In the 1995 French presidential election
the future President Chirac was not the nation's choice in the first round of
voting. In
Elected presidents are concerned more with their own political futures
and power, and as we have seen (in
A long reigning monarch can put enormous experience at the disposal of transient political leaders. Since succeeding her father in 1952 Queen Elizabeth has had a number of Prime Ministers, the latest of whom were not even in Parliament at the time of her accession. An experienced monarch can act as a brake on over ambitious or misguided politicians, and encorage others who are less confident. The reality is often the converse of the theory: the monarch is frequently the Prime Minister's best adviser.
Monarchs,
particularly those in
A monarch is
trained from Birth for the position of Head of State and even where, as after
the abdication of Edward VIII, a younger brother succeeds, he too has enormous experience
of his country, its people and its government. The people know who will
succeed, and this certainly gives a nation invaluable continuity and stability.
This also explains why it is rare for an unsuitable person to become King.
There are no expensive elections as in the
In ceremonial
presidencies the Head of State is often a former politician tainted by, and
still in thrall to, his former political life and loyalties, or an academic or
retired diplomat who can never have the same prestige as a monarch, and who is
frequently little known inside the country, and almost totally unknown outside
it. For example, ask a German why is
Aided by his immediate family, a monarch can carry out a range of duties and public engagements - ceremonial, charitable, environmental etc. which an Executive President would never have time to do, and to which a ceremonial President would not add lustre.
A monarch and members of a Royal Family can become involved in a wide range of issues which are forbidden to politicians. All parties have vested interests which they cannot ignore. Vernon Bogdanor says in ' The Monarchy and the Constitution' - «A politician must inevitably be a spokesperson for only part of the nation, not the whole. A politician's motives will always be suspected. Members of the Royal Family, by contrast, because of their symbolic position, are able to speak to a much wider constituency than can be commanded by even the most popular political leader." In a Republic, then, who is there to speak out on issues where the 'here today, gone tomorrow' government is constrained from criticising its backers, even though such criticism is in the national interest.
All nations are made up of families, and it's natural that a family should be at a nation's head.
While the question of Divine Right is now obsolescent, the fact that "there's such divinity doth hedge a King" remains true, and it is interesting to note that even today Kings are able to play a role in the spiritual life of a nation which presidents seem unable to fulfil.
It has been
demonstrated that, even ignoring the enormous cost of presidential elections, a
monarch as head of state is no more expensive than a president. In
Even Royal Families
which are not reigning are dedicated to the service of their people, and
continue to be regarded as the symbol of the nation's continuity. Prominent
examples are H.R.H. the Duke of Braganza in
KINGS AND QUEENS OF ENGLAND
The history of the
English Crown up to the
The Middle Ages saw
several fierce contests for the Crown, culminating in the Wars of the Roses,
which lasted for nearly a century. The conflict was finally ended with the
advent of the Tudors, the dynasty which produced some of
THE ANGLO-SAXON KINGS
In the Dark Ages during
the fifth and sixth centuries, communities of peoples in
The invading
communities overwhelmed or adapted existing kingdoms and created new ones - for
example, the Angles in
By 650 AD, the
According to the
later chronicler Bede, the most famous of these kings was Ethelberht, king of
Kent (reigned c.560-616), who married Bertha, the Christian daughter of the
king of Paris, and who became the first English king to be converted to
Christianity (St Augustine's mission from the Pope to Britain in 597 during
Ethelberht's reign prompted thousands of such conversions). Ethelberht's law
code was the first to be written in any Germanic language and included 90 laws.
His influence extended both north and south of the river
In the eighth century,
smaller kingdoms in the
Throughout the Anglo-Saxon period the succession was frequently contested, by both the Anglo-Saxon aristocracy and leaders of the settling Scandinavian communities. The Scandinavian influence was to prove strong in the early years. It was the threat of invading Vikings which galvanised English leaders into unifying their forces, and, centuries later, the Normans who successfully invaded in 1066 were themselves the descendants of Scandinavian 'Northmen'.
HOUSE OF
802 – 1066
EGBERT = Redburga
(802–839)
ETHELWULF = Osburga dau. of Oslac of
(839–855)
ETHELBERHT ALFRED the Great = Ealhswith
ETHELBALD (860–866) ETHELRED (871–899)
(855–860) (866–871)
Ecgwyn = EDWARD THE ELDER= Edgiva
(899–924)
ATHELSTAN
(924–939)
Elgiva = EDMUND I EDRED (939–946) (946–955)
EDWY
Ethelfleda
= EDGAR = Elfrida,
dau. of Ordgar, Ealdorman of
(955–959) dau. of (959–975)
Ealdorman
Ordmaer
EDWARD THE MARTYR
(975–979)
Elfgifu = ETHELRED II THE UNREADY = Emma
(979–1016) (later
(deposed 1013/14) married
CANUTE)
EDMUND II IRONSIDE
(Apr.–Nov.1016)
Godwin = Gytha
EDWARD THE = Eadgyth HAROLD II
CONFESSOR (Edith) (Jan.–Oct.1066)
(1042–1066)
EGBERT (802-39 AD)
Known as the first
King of All England, he was forced into exile at the court of Charlemagne, by
the powerful Offa, King of Mercia. Egbert returned to
ÆTHELWULF (839-55 AD)
Æthelwulf was
the son of Egbert and a sub-king of
He was an only
child, but had fathered five sons, by his first wife, Osburga. He recognized
that there could be difficulties with contention over the succession. He
devised a scheme which would guarantee (insofar as it was possible to do so)
that each child would have his turn on the throne without having to worry about
rival claims from his siblings. Æthelwulf provided that the oldest living
child would succeed to the throne and would control all the resources of the
crown, without having them divided among the others, so that he would have
adequate resources to rule. That he was able to provide for the continuation of
his dynasty is a matter of record, but he was not able to guarantee familial
harmony with his plan. This is proved by what we know of the foul plottings of
his son, Æthelbald, while Æthelwulf was on pilgrimage to
Æthelwulf was a wise and capable ruler, whose vision made possible the beneficial reign of his youngest son, Alfred the Great.
While his father, Æthelwulf,
was on pilgrimage to
Æthelwulf died in 858, and full control passed to Æthelbald. Perhaps Æthelbald's premature power grab was occasioned by impatience, or greed, or lack of confidence in his father's succession plans. Whatever the case, he did not live long to enjoy it. He died in 860, passing the throne to his brother, Æthelbert, just as Æthelwulf had planned.
ÆTHELBERT (860-66 AD)
Very little is
known about Æthelbert, who took his rightful place in the line of
succession to the throne of
ÆTHELRED I (866-71 AD)
Anglo-Saxon king of
ALFRED «THE GREAT» (871-899)
Born at Wantage,
Since the 790s, the
Vikings had been using fast mobile armies, numbering thousands of men embarked
in shallow-draught longships, to raid the coasts and inland waters of
As king of
A resourceful
fighter, Alfred reassessed his strategy and adopted the Danes' tactics by
building a fortified base at Athelney in the
Realising that he
could not drive the Danes out of the rest of
The Danish threat
remained, and Alfred reorganised the
Second, Alfred
started a building programme of well-defended settlements across southern
Alfred's concept of
kingship extended beyond the administration of the tribal
To improve
literacy, Alfred arranged, and took part in, the translation (by scholars from
Mercia) from Latin into Anglo-Saxon of a handful of books he thought it 'most
needful for men to know, and to bring it to pass ... if we have the peace, that
all the youth now in England ... may be devoted to learning'. These books
covered history, philosophy and Gregory the Great's 'Pastoral Care' (a handbook
for bishops), and copies of these books were sent to all the bishops of the
kingdom. Alfred was patron of the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle (which was copied and
supplemented up to 1154), a patriotic history of the English from the
Like other West
Saxon kings, Alfred established a legal code; he assembled the laws of Offa and
other predecessors, and of the kingdoms of
By the 890s,
Alfred's charters and coinage (which he had also reformed, extending its
minting to the burhs he had founded) referred to him as 'king of the English',
and Welsh kings sought alliances with him. Alfred died in 899, aged 50, and was
buried in
By stopping the
Viking advance and consolidating his territorial gains, Alfred had started the
process by which his successors eventually extended their power over the other
Anglo-Saxon kings; the ultimate unification of Anglo-Saxon England was to be
led by
EDWARD «THE ELDER» (899-924)
Well-trained by
Alfred, his son Edward 'the Elder' (reigned 899-924) was a bold soldier who
defeated the Danes in
Edward was able to
establish an administration for the
ATHELSTAN (924-939)
Edward's heir Athelstan (reigned 925-39) was also a distinguished and audacious soldier who pushed the boundaries of the kingdom to their furthest extent yet. In 927-8, Athelstan took York from the Danes; he forced the submission of king Constantine of Scotland and of the northern kings; all five Welsh kings agreed to pay a huge annual tribute (reportedly including 25,000 oxen), and Athelstan eliminated opposition in Cornwall.
The battle of
Brunanburh in 937, in which Athelstan led a force drawn from
Athelstan's law
codes strengthened royal control over his large kingdom; currency was regulated
to control silver's weight and to penalise fraudsters. Buying and selling was
mostly confined to the burghs, encouraging town life; areas of settlement in
the midlands and Danish towns were consolidated into shires. Overseas,
Athelstan built alliances by marrying four of his half-sisters to various
rulers in
He also had extensive cultural and religious contacts; as an enthusiastic and discriminating collector of works of art and religious relics, he gave away much of his collection to his followers and to churches and bishops in order to retain their support.
Athelstan died at
the height of his power and was buried at Malmesbury; a church charter of 934
described him as 'King of the English, elevated by the right hand of the
Almighty ... to the Throne of the whole
EDMUND I (939-46)
Son of Edward the
Elder, succeeded his half-brother, Æthelstan, with whom he had fought at
Brunanburh. Combated the Norse Vikings in
EADRED (946-55)
King of
This prospect frightened the already frightened Northumbrians into abandoning Eric Bloodaxe. It must be that they viewed Eadred as more formidable than a bloodthirsty Viking, who had been thrown out of a society known for its bloodthirstiness, because he was too bloodthirsty and tyrannical for them. In any case, according to the "AngloSaxon Chronicle", "the Northumbrians expelled Eric."
As to his personal
side, William of Malmesbury provides some illumination. He says that Eadred was
afflicted with some lingering physical malady, since he was, "constantly
oppressed by sickness, and of so weak a digestion as to be unable to swallow
more than the juices of the food he had masticated, to the great annoyance of
his guests." Regarding his spiritual side, apparently the pillaging,
ravaging and laying waste that he did, had no deleterious effects on him. As
Malmesbury states, he devoted his life to God, "endured with patience his
frequent bodily pains, prolonged his prayers and made his palace altogether the
school of virtue." He died while still a young man, as had so many of the
kings of
EADWIG (EDWY) (955-59 AD)
On the death of Eadred, who had no children, Eadwig was chosen to be king since he was the oldest of the children in the natural line of the House of Wessex. He became king at 16 and displayed some of the tendencies one could expect in one so young, royalty or not. Historians have not treated Eadwig especially well, and it is unfortunate for him that he ran afoul of the influential Bishop Dunstan (friend and advisor to the recently deceased king, Eadred, future Archbishop of Canterbury and future saint), early in his reign. An incident, which occurred on the day of Eadwig's consecration as king, purportedly, illustrates the character of the young king. According to the report of the reliable William of Malmesbury, all the dignitaries and officials of the kingdom were meeting to discuss state business, when the absence of the new king was noticed. Dunstan was dispatched, along with another bishop, to find the missing youth. He was found with his mind on matters other than those of state, in the company of the daughter of a noble woman of the kingdom. Malmesbury writes, Dunstan, " regardless of the royal indignation, dragged the lascivious boy from the chamber and...compelling him to repudiate the strumpet made him his enemy forever." The record of this incident was picked up by future monastic chroniclers and made to be the definitive word on the character of Eadwig, mainly because of St. Dunstan's role in it.
Dunstan was, after
that incident, never exactly a favorite of Eadwig's, and it may be fair to say
that Eadwig even hated Dunstan, for he apparently exiled him soon after this.
Eadwig went on to marry Ælgifu, the girl with whom he was keeping company
at the time of Dunstan's intrusion. For her part, "the strumpet" was
eventually referred to as among "the most illustrious of women", and
Eadwig, in his short reign, was generous in making grants to the church and
other religious institutions. He died, possibly of the
EDGAR (959-975)
Edgar, king in
Edgar was the patron of a great monastic revival which owed much to his association with Archbishop Dunstan. New bishoprics were created, Benedictine monasteries were reformed and old monastic sites were re-endowed with royal grants, some of which were of land recovered from the Vikings.
In the 970s and in
the absence of Viking attacks, Edgar - a stern judge - issued laws which for
the first time dealt with
EDWARD II «THE MARTYR» (975-979)
The sudden death of Edgar at
the age of 33 led to a succession dispute between rival factions supporting his
sons Edward and Ethelred. The elder son Edward was murdered in 978 at
ETHELRED II «THE UNREADY» (979-1013 AND 1014-1016)
Ethelred, the
younger son of Edgar, became king at the age of seven following the murder of
his half-brother Edward II in 978 at
For the rest of
Ethelred's rule (reigned 978-1016), his brother became a posthumous rallying
point for political unrest; a hostile Church transformed Edward into a royal
martyr. Known as the Un-raed or 'Unready' (meaning 'no counsel', or that he was
unwise), Ethelred failed to win or retain the allegiance of many of his
subjects. In 1002, he ordered the massacre of all Danes in
Not being an able
soldier, Ethelred defended the country against increasingly rapacious Viking
raids from the 980s onwards by diplomatic alliance with the duke of
In 1013, Ethelred
fled to
SWEYN (1013-1014)
The son of a Danish
king, Sweyn 'Forkbeard' began conquering territory in
EDMUND II, IRONSIDE (1016)
Edmund was King of
England for only a few months. After the death of his father, Æthelred
II, in April 1016, Edmund led the defense of the city of
CANUTE «THE GREAT» (1016-1035)
Son of Sweyn,
Canute became undisputed King of England in 1016, and his rivals (Ethelred's
surviving sons and Edmund's son) fled abroad. In 1018, the last Danegeld of
82,500 pounds was paid to Canute. Ruthless but capable, Canute consolidated his
position by marrying Ethelred's widow Emma (Canute's first English partner -
the Church did not recognise her as his wife - was set aside, later appointed
regent of
During his inevitable absences in
A second-generation
Christian for reasons of politics as well as faith, Canute went on pilgrimage
to
Canute was buried
at
HAROLD HAREFOOT (1035-1040)
Harold Harefoot was
the son of Canute and his first wife, Elfgifu. The brothers began by sharing
the
HARDICANUTE (1035-1042)
Harthacnut was the
son of Canute and his second wife, Emma, the widow of Ethelred II. His father
intended Hardicanute to become king of the English in preference to his elder
brother Harold Harefoot, but he nearly lost his chance of this when he became
preoccupied with affairs in
EDWARD III, THE CONFESSOR (1042-66 AD)
The penultimate
Anglo-Saxon king, Edward was the oldest son of Æthelred II and Emma. He
had gone to
Canute had placed the local control of the shires into the hands of several powerful earls: Leofric of Mercia (Lady Godiva's husband), Siward of Northumbria and Godwin of Wessex, the most formidable of all. Through Godwin's influence, Edward took the throne at the untimely death of Hardicanute in 1042. In 1045, he married Godwin's only daughter, Edith.
Resulting from the
connections made during Edward's years in
A Norman, Robert
Champart, who had been Bishop of London, was made Archbishop of Canterbury by
Edward in 1051, a promotion that displeased Godwin immensely. The Godwins were
banished from the kingdom after staging an unsuccessful rebellion against the
king but returned, landing an invasionary force in the south of
Edward's greatest
achievement was the construction of a new cathedral, where virtually all
English monarchs from William the Conqueror onward would be crowned. It was
determined that the minster should not be built in
On his deathbed, Edward named Harold as his successor, instead of the legitimate heir, his grandson, Edgar the Ætheling. The question of succession had been an issue for some years and remained unsettled at Edward's death in January, 1066. It was neatly resolved, however, by William the Conqueror, just nine months later.
There is some
question as to what kind of person Edward was. After his death, he was the
object of a religious cult and was canonized in 1161, but that could be viewed
as a strictly political move. Some say, probably correctly, that he was a weak,
but violent man and that his reputation for saintliness was overstated,
possibly a sham perpetrated by the monks of
HAROLD II (1066)
On Edward's death, the King's Council (the
Witenagemot) confirmed Edward's brother-in-law Harold, Earl of Wessex, as King.
With no royal blood, and fearing rival claims from William Duke of
In September,
Harald Hardrada of
Meanwhile, William,
Duke of Normandy (who claimed that Harold had acknowledged him in 1064 as
Edward's successor) had landed in
An abbey was later built, in 1070, to fulfil a vow made by William I, and its high altar was placed on the spot where Harold fell. The ruins of Battle Abbey still remain with a stone slab marking where Harold died.
THE
The
This was the case
when William the Conqueror died. His eldest son, Robert, became Duke of
Normandy, while the next youngest, William, became king of
The question of the
succession continued to weigh heavily over the remainder of the period. Henry's
son died, and his nominated heir Matilda was denied the throne by her cousin,
Henry's nephew, Stephen. There then followed a period of civil war. Matilda
married Geoffrey Plantagenet of
A compromise was eventually reached whereby the son of Matilda and Geoffrey would be heir to the English crown, while Stephen's son would inherit his baronial lands. All this meant that in 1154 Henry II would ascend to the throne as the first undisputed King in over 100 years - proof of the dynastic uncertainty of the Norman period.
THE CONTINENTAL DYNASTIES
1066 - 1216
HAROLD BLUETOOTH,
King of
Gunhilda of = SWEYN FORKBEARD Styrbjorn = Thyra
of
Thorgils Sprakalegg
Elgiva of (1) = CANUTE = (2) Emma, widow of Judith = Richard II,
Conan I Normandy Earl of
HAROLD HARDICANUTE
HAREFOOT (1040–1042) Robert I = Herlève
(1035–1040) Duke of
HAROLD II EDWARD THE=Eadgyth
(1066) CONFESSOR
(1042–1066)
WILLIAM I = Matilda, dau. of
THE
CONQUEROR
(1066–1087) of
WILLIAM II Adela = Stephen, Adela of = HENRY I,
(1087–1100) Count
of
STEPHEN Matilda = Geoffrey, Count
(1135–1154)
of
HENRY II = Eleanor of
(1154–1189)
wife of LOUIS VII,
King of
RICHARD I JOHN = Isabella, dau. of
(1189–1199) (1199–1216) Count of
Angoulême
HENRY III
(1216–1272)
WILLIAM I «THE CONQUEROR» (1066-1087)
Born
around 1028, William was the illegitimate son of Duke Robert I of
WILLIAM II (KNOWN AS WILLIAM RUFUS) (1087-1100)
Strong, outspoken and ruddy (hence
his nickname 'Rufus'), William II (reigned 1087-1100) extended his father's
policies, taking royal power to the far north of
William's relations with the
Church were not easy; he took over Archbishop Lanfranc's revenues after the
latter's death in 1089, kept other bishoprics vacant to make use of their
revenues, and had numerous arguments with Lanfranc's popular successor, Anselm.
William died on
HENRY I (1100-1135)
William's
younger brother Henry succeeded to the throne. He was crowned three days after
his brother's death, against the possibility that his eldest brother Robert
might claim the English throne. After the decisive battle of Tinchebrai in 1106
in
STEPHEN AND MATILDA (1135-1154)
Though
charming, attractive and (when required) a brave warrior, Stephen (reigned
1135-54) lacked ruthlessness and failed to inspire loyalty. He could neither
control his friends nor subdue his enemies, despite the support of his brother
Henry of Blois (Bishop of Winchester) and his able wife Matilda of Boulogne.
Henry I's daughter Matilda invaded
Henry II, the son of Geoffrey Plantagenet and Henry I's daughter Matilda, was the first in a long line of 14 Plantagenet kings, stretching from Henry II's accession through to Richard III's death in 1485. Within that line, however, four distinct Royal Houses can be identified: Angevin, Plantagenet, Lancaster and York.
The first Angevin
King, Henry II, began the period as arguably the most powerful monarch in
As with many of his
predecessors, Henry II spent much of his time away from
HENRY II CURTMANTLE (1154-1189)
Henry II ruled over an empire which stretched
from the Scottish border to the
RICHARD I COEUR DE LION ('THE LIONHEART') (1189-1199)
Henry's elder son,
Richard I (reigned 1189-99), fulfilled his main ambition by going on crusade in
1190, leaving the ruling of
JOHN (1199-1216)
John was an able
administrator interested in law and government but he neither trusted others
nor was trusted by them. Heavy taxation, disputes with the Church (John was
excommunicated by the Pope in 1209) and unsuccessful attempts to recover his
French possessions made him unpopular. Many of his barons rebelled and in June
1215 they forced the King to sign a peace treaty accepting their reforms. This treaty, later known as Magna Carta,
limited royal powers, defined feudal obligations between the King and the
barons, and guaranteed a number of rights. The most influential clauses
concerned the freedom of the Church; the redress of grievances of owners and
tenants of land; the need to consult the Great Council of the Realm so as to
prevent unjust taxation; mercantile and trading relationships; regulation of
the machinery of justice so that justice be denied to no one; and the
requirement to control the behaviour of royal officials. The most important
clauses established the basis of habeas corpus ('you have the body'), i.e. that
no one shall be imprisoned except by due process of law, and that 'to no one
will we sell, to no one will we refuse or delay right or justice'. The Charter also established a council of
barons who were to ensure that the Sovereign observed the Charter, with the
right to wage war on him if he did not. Magna Carta was the first formal
document insisting that the Sovereign was as much under the rule of law as his
people, and that the rights of individuals were to be upheld even against the
wishes of the sovereign. As a source of fundamental constitutional principles,
Magna Carta came to be seen as an important definition of aspects of English
law, and in later centuries as the basis of the liberties of the English people. As a peace treaty Magna Carta was a failure
and the rebels invited Louis of France to become their king. When John died in
1216
THE PLANTAGENETS
The
Plantagenet period was dominated by three major conflicts at home
and abroad. Edward I attempted to create a
The period also saw
the development of new social institutions and a distinctive English
culture. Parliament emerged and grew. The judicial reforms begun in the
reign of Henry II were continued and completed by Edward I. Culture began
to flourish. Three Plantagenet kings were patrons of Geoffrey Chaucer, the
father of English poetry. During the early part of the period, the
architectural style of the
Amidst the order of learning and art, however, were disturbing new phenomena. The outbreak of Bubonic plague or the 'Black Death' served to undermine military campaigns and cause huge social turbulence, killing half the country's population. The price rises and labour shortage which resulted led to social unrest, culminating in the Peasants' Revolt in 1381.
THE PLANTAGENET DYNASTIES
1216 - 1485
HENRY
III = Eleanor, dau. of Count of
(1216–1272)
Eleanor, = EDWARD I
dau. of (1272–1307)
FERDINAND III,
King of
and
EDWARD II = Isabella, dau.
(1307–1327) of PHILIP IV,
King of
EDWARD III = Philippa, dau. of Count
(1327–1377) of Hainault and
Edward, Prince = Joan, dau. of Earl Lionel, Duke =
of
The Black Prince of EDWARD
I)
of
RICHARD II Edmund, = Philippa Mary = HENRY IV John Beaufort,
(1377–1399) Earl of March Bohun (1399–1413)
Roger, Earl = Eleanor HENRY V (1) = Katherine, dau. John Beaufort,
of March
King of
Richard, Earl = Anne HENRY VI Margaret Beaufort = Edmund Tudor,
of
1470–1471)
Richard,
Duke = Cecily
of York Neville dau. of EDWARD IV (1485–1509)
EDWARD IV =
(1461–1470, of Sir Richard (1483–1485)
1471–1483) Woodville
EDWARD V
(1483) (1485–1509)
HENRY III (1216-1272)
Henry III, King
John's son, was only nine when he became King. By 1227, when he assumed power
from his regent, order had been restored, based on his acceptance of Magna
Carta. However, the King's failed campaigns in France (1230 and 1242), his
choice of friends and advisers, together with the cost of his scheme to make
one of his younger sons King of Sicily and help the Pope against the Holy Roman
Emperor, led to further disputes with the barons and united opposition in
Church and State. Although Henry was extravagant and his tax demands were
resented, the King's accounts show a list of many charitable donations and
payments for building works (including the rebuilding of Westminster Abbey which
began in 1245). The Provisions of
Oxford (1258) and the Provisions of Westminster (1259) were attempts by the
nobles to define common law in the spirit of Magna Carta, control appointments
and set up an aristocratic council. Henry tried to defeat them by obtaining
papal absolution from his oaths, and enlisting King Louis XI's help. Henry
renounced the Provisions in 1262 and war broke out. The barons, under their
leader, Simon de Montfort, were initially successful and even captured Henry.
However, Henry escaped, joined forces with the lords of the
EDWARD I (1272-1307)
Born in June 1239 at
EDWARD II (1307-1327)
Edward II had few
of the qualities that made a successful medieval king. Edward surrounded
himself with favourites (the best known being a Gascon, Piers Gaveston), and
the barons, feeling excluded from power, rebelled. Throughout his reign,
different baronial groups struggled to gain power and control the King. The
nobles' ordinances of 1311, which attempted to limit royal control of finance
and appointments, were counteracted by Edward. Large debts (many inherited) and
the Scots' victory at
EDWARD III (1327-77)
Edward III was 14
when he was crowned King and assumed government in his own right in 1330. In
1337, Edward created the Duchy of Cornwall to provide the heir to the throne
with an income independent of the sovereign or the state. An able soldier, and
an inspiring leader, Edward founded the Order of the Garter in 1348. At the beginning of the Hundred Years War in
1337, actual campaigning started when the King invaded
RICHARD II (1377-99)
Edward III's son,
the Black Prince, died in 1376. The King's grandson, Richard II, succeeded to
the throne aged 10, on Edward's death. In 1381 the Peasants' Revolt broke out
and Richard, aged 14, bravely rode out to meet the rebels at
THE LANCASTRIANS
The accession of
Henry IV sowed the seeds for a period of unrest which ultimately broke out in
civil war. Fraught by rebellion and instability after his usurpation of Richard
II, Henry IV found it difficult to enforce his rule. His son, Henry V, fared
better, defeating
By the reign of the relatively weak Henry VI, civil war broke out between rival claimants to the throne, dating back to the sons of Edward III. The Lancastrian dynasty descended from John of Gaunt, third son of Edward III, whose son Henry deposed the unpopular Richard II. Yorkist claimants such as the Duke of York asserted their legitimate claim to the throne through Edward III's second surviving son, but through a female line. The Wars of the Roses therefore tested whether the succession should keep to the male line or could pass through females.
Captured and briefly restored, Henry VI was captured and put to death, and the Yorkist faction led by Edward IV gained the throne.
HENRY IV (1399-1413)
Henry IV was born
at Bolingbroke in 1367 to John of Gaunt and Blanche of Lancaster. He married
Mary Bohun in 1380, who bore him seven children before her death in 1394. In
1402, Henry remarried, taking as his bride Joan of Navarre. Henry had an
on-again, off-again relationship with his cousin, Richard II. He was one of the
Lords Appellant, who, in 1388, persecuted many of Richard's advisor-favorites,
but his excellence as a soldier gained the king's favor - Henry was created
Duke of Hereford in 1397. In 1398, however, the increasingly suspicious Richard
banished him for ten years. John of Gaunt's death in 1399 prompted Richard to
confiscate the vast Lancastrian estates; Henry invaded
HENRY V (1413-1422)
Henry V, the eldest son of Henry IV and Mary Bohun, was born in 1387. As per arrangement by the Treaty of Troyes, he married Catherine, daughter of the French King Charles VI, in June 1420. His only child, the future Henry VI, was born in 1421.
Henry was an
accomplished soldier: at age fourteen he fought the Welsh forces of Owen ap
Glendower; at age sixteen he commanded his father's forces at the battle of
By the Treaty of Troyes in 1420, Charles VI not only accepted Henry as his son-in-law, but passed over his own son to name Henry as heir to the French crown. Had Henry lived a mere two months longer, he would have been king of both England and France.
Henry had prematurely aged due to living the hard life of a soldier. He became seriously ill and died after returning from yet another French campaign; Catherine had bore his only son while he was away and Henry died having never seen the child. The historian Rafael Holinshed, in Chronicles of England , summed up Henry's reign as such: "This Henry was a king, of life without spot, a prince whom all men loved, and of none disdained, e captain against whom fortune never frowned, nor mischance once spurned, whose people him so severe a justicer both loved and obeyed (and so humane withal) that he left no offence unpunished, nor friendship unrewarded; a terror to rebels, and suppressor of sedition, his virtues notable, his qualities most praiseworthy."
HENRY VI (1422-61, 1470-71 AD)
Henry VI was the
only child of Henry V and Catherine of Valois, born on
Hostilities
in
The
Wars of the Roses began in full during Henry's reign. In 1453, Henry had an
attack of the hereditary mental illness that plagued the French house of
The Yorkist
conquest of the Lancastrians in 1461 did not put an end to the Wars of the
Roses, which rumbled on until the start of the sixteenth century. Family
disloyalty in the form of Richard III's betrayal of his nephews, the young King
Edward V and his brother, was part of his downfall. Henry Tudor, a claimant to
the throne of Lancastrian descent, defeated Richard III in battle and Richard
was killed. With the marriage of Henry to
EDWARD IV (1461-1470 and 1471-1483)
Edward IV was able
to restore order, despite the temporary return to the throne of Henry VI
(reigned 1470-71, during which time Edward fled to the Continent in exile)
supported by the Earl of Warwick, 'the Kingmaker', who had previously supported
Edward and who was killed at the Battle of Barnet in 1471. Edward also made
peace with
EDWARD V (April-June 1483)
Edward V was a
minor, and his uncle Richard, Duke of Gloucester, was made Protector. Richard
had been loyal throughout to his brother Edward IV including the events of
1470-71, Edward's exile and their brother's rebellion (the Duke of Clarence,
who was executed in 1478 by drowning, reputedly in a barrel of Malmsey wine).
However, he was suspicious of the Woodville faction, possibly believing they
were the cause of Clarence's death. In response to an attempt by Elizabeth
Woodville to take power, Richard and Edward V entered
RICHARD III (1483-1485)
Richard
III usurped the throne from the young Edward V, who disappeared with his
younger brother while under their ambitious uncle's supposed protection. On becoming king, Richard attempted genuine
reconciliation with the Yorkists by showing consideration to Lancastrians
purged from office by Edward IV, and moved Henry VI's body to
THE TUDORS
The five sovereigns
of the Tudor dynasty are among the most well-known figures in Royal history. Of
Welsh origin, Henry VII succeeded in ending the Wars of the Roses between the
houses of
During this period,
Culturally and
socially, the Tudor period saw many changes. The Tudor court played a prominent
part in the cultural Renaissance taking place in
THE TUDORS
1485 - 1603
HENRY VII =
(1485–1509) dau. of EDWARD IV
Catherine of (1) = HENRY VIII = (2) Anne Boleyn, = (3) Jane, dau. Margaret (1) = JAMES IV,
of FERDINAND V, of
Wiltshire
first King of Spain
MARY
I (1547–1553) (1558–1603) King of
(1553–1558) (1513–1542) dau. of Duke
of Guise
MARY, = Henry, Lord
Queen Darnley
of Scots
(1542–1567,
ex.1587)
THE STUARTS 1603 – 1714 Anne, dau. of =
JAMES VI OF
FREDERICK II, AND I OF
King of
(1603–1625)
Elector
ex.1649) King of France
Sophia = Ernest Augustus,
Elector of
CHARLES II Mary = WILLIAM II JAMES II = Anne Hyde,
(1649–1685)
of
GEORGE I deposed 1688) Clarendon
(1714–1727)
WILLIAM III = MARY II ANNE
(1689–1702) (1689–1694) (1702–1714)
Joint Sovereigns
HENRY VII (1485-1509 AD)
Henry VII, son of Edmund Tudor and Margaret Beaufort, was born in 1457. He married Elizabeth of York in 1486, who bore him four children: Arthur, Henry, Margaret and Mary. He died in 1509 after reigning 24 years.
Henry descended
from John of Gaunt, through the latter's illicit affair with Catherine
Swynford; although he was a Lancastrian, he gained the throne through personal
battle. The Lancastrian victory at the Battle of Bosworth in 1485 left Richard
III slain in the field, York ambitions routed and Henry proclaimed king. From
the onset of his reign, Henry was determined to bring order to
Henry greatly strengthened the monarchy by employing many political innovations to outmaneuver the nobility. The household staff rose beyond mere servitude: Henry eschewed public appearances, therefore, staff members were the few persons Henry saw on a regular basis. He created the Committee of the Privy Council ,a forerunner of the modern cabinet) as an executive advisory board; he established the Court of the Star Chamber to increase royal involvement in civil and criminal cases; and as an alternative to a revenue tax disbursement from Parliament, he imposed forced loans and grants on the nobility. Henry's mistrust of the nobility derived from his experiences in the Wars of the Roses - a majority remained dangerously neutral until the very end. His skill at by-passing Parliament (and thus, the will of the nobility) played a crucial role in his success at renovating government.
Henry's political
acumen was also evident in his handling of foreign affairs. He played
Henry failed to appeal to the general populace: he maintained a distance between king and subject. He brought the nobility to heel out of necessity to transform the medieval government that he inherited into an efficient tool for conducting royal business. Law and trade replaced feudal obligation as the Middle Ages began evolving into the modern world. Francis Bacon, in his history of Henry VII, described the king as such: "He was of a high mind, and loved his own will and his own way; as one that revered himself, and would reign indeed. Had he been a private man he would have been termed proud: But in a wise Prince, it was but keeping of distance; which indeed he did towards all; not admitting any near or full approach either to his power or to his secrets. For he was governed by none."
HENRY VIII (1509-47 AD)
Henry VIII, born in 1491, was the second son of Henry VII and Elizabeth of York. The significance of Henry's reign is, at times, overshadowed by his six marriages: dispensing with these forthwith enables a deeper search into the major themes of the reign. He married Catherine of Aragon (widow of his brother, Arthur) in 1509, divorcing her in 1533; the union produced one daughter, Mary. Henry married the pregnant Anne Boleyn in 1533; she gave him another daughter, Elizabeth, but was executed for infidelity (a treasonous charge in the king's consort) in May 1536. He married Jane Seymour by the end of the same month, who died giving birth to Henry's lone male heir, Edward, in October 1536. Early in 1540, Henry arranged a marriage with Anne of Cleves, after viewing Hans Holbein's beautiful portrait of the German princess. In person, alas, Henry found her homely and the marriage was never consummated. In July 1540, he married the adulterous Catherine Howard - she was executed for infidelity in March 1542. Catherine Parr became his wife in 1543, providing for the needs of both Henry and his children until his death in 1547.
The court life
initiated by his father evolved into a cornerstone of Tudor government in the
reign of Henry VIII. After his father's staunch, stolid rule, the energetic,
youthful and handsome king avoided governing in person, much preferring to
journey the countryside hunting and reviewing his subjects. Matters of state
were left in the hands of others, most notably Thomas Wolsey, Archbishop of
York. Cardinal Wolsey virtually ruled
The 1530's
witnessed Henry's growing involvement in government, and a series of events
which greatly altered England, as well as the whole of Western Christendom: the
separation of the Church of England from Roman Catholicism. The separation was
actually a by-product of Henry's obsession with producing a male heir;
Catherine of Aragon failed to produce a male and the need to maintain dynastic
legitimacy forced Henry to seek an annulment from the pope in order to marry
Anne Boleyn. Wolsey tried repeatedly to secure a legal annulment from Pope
Clement VII, but Clement was beholden to the Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor and
nephew of Catherine. Henry summoned the Reformation Parliament in 1529, which
passed 137 statutes in seven years and exercised an influence in political and
ecclesiastic affairs which was unknown to feudal parliaments. Religious reform
movements had already taken hold in
The remainder of Henry's reign was anticlimactic. Anne Boleyn lasted only three years before her execution; she was replaced by Jane Seymour, who laid Henry's dynastic problems to rest with the birth of Edward VI. Fragmented noble factions involved in the Wars of the Roses found themselves reduced to vying for the king's favor in court. Reformist factions won the king's confidence and vastly benefiting from Henry's dissolution of the monasteries, as monastic lands and revenues went either to the crown or the nobility. The royal staff continued the rise in status that began under Henry VII, eventually to rival the power of the nobility. Two men, in particular, were prominent figures through the latter stages of Henry's reign: Thomas Cromwell and Thomas Cranmer. Cromwell, an efficient administrator, succeeded Wolsey as Lord Chancellor, creating new governmental departments for the varying types of revenue and establishing parish priest's duty of recording births, baptisms, marriages and deaths. Cranmer, Archbishop of Canterbury, dealt with and guided changes in ecclesiastical policy and oversaw the dissolution of the monasteries.
Henry VIII built
upon the innovations instituted by his father. The break with
EDWARD VI (1547-1553 AD)
Edward VI, son of
Henry VIII and Jane Seymour, was born in 1537. He ascended the throne at age
nine, upon the death of his father. He was betrothed to his cousin, Mary Queen
of Scots, but deteriorating English-Scot relations prohibited their marriage.
The frail, Protestant boy died of consumption at age sixteen having never
married. Edward's reign was beset by
problems from the onset. Ascending the throne while stillin his minority
presented a backdrop for factional in fighting and power plays. Henry VIII, in
his last days, sought to eliminate this potential problem by decreeing that a
Council of Regency would govern until the child came of age, but Edward Seymour
(Edward VI's uncle) gained the upper hand. The Council offered
LADY JANE GREY (10-19 July 1553)
The Accession of Lady Jane Grey was engineered by the powerful Duke of Northumberland, President of the King's Council, in the interests of promoting his own dynastic line. Northumberland persuaded the sickly Edward VI to name Lady Jane Grey as his heir. As one of Henry VIII's great-nieces, the young girl was a genuine claimant to the throne. Northumberland then married his own son, Lord Guilford Dudley, to Lady Jane. On the death of Edward, Jane assumed the throne and her claim was recognised by the Council. Despite this, the country rallied to Mary, Catherine of Aragon's daughter and a devout Roman Catholic. Jane reigned for only nine days and was later executed with her husband in 1554.
MARY I (1553-1558)
Mary I was the first Queen Regnant (that is, a queen reigning in her own right rather than a queen through marriage to a king). Courageous and stubborn, her character was moulded by her earlier years: an Act of Parliament in 1533 had declared her illegitimate and removed her from the succession to the throne (she was reinstated in 1544, but her half-brother Edward removed her from the succession once more shortly before his death), whilst she was pressurised to give up the Mass and acknowledge the English Protestant Church.
Mary restored papal
supremacy in
Aged 37 at her
accession, Mary wished to marry and have children, thus leaving a Catholic heir
to consolidate her religious reforms, and removing her half-sister
Elizabeth I - the
last Tudor monarch - was born at
Although autocratic
and capricious,
The arts flourished
during
However,
In 1588, aided by bad weather, the English navy scored a great victory over the Spanish invasion fleet of around 130 ships - the 'Armada'. The Armada was intended to overthrow the Queen and re-establish Roman Catholicism by conquest, as Philip II believed he had a claim to the English throne through his marriage to Mary.
During
Overall,
THE STUARTS
The Stuarts were
the first kings of the
The Stuart dynasty
reigned in
The end of the Stuart line with the death of Queen Anne led to the drawing up of the Act of Settlement in 1701, which provided that only Protestants could hold the throne. The next in line according to the provisions of this act was George of Hanover, yet Stuart princes remained in the wings. The Stuart legacy was to linger on in the form of claimants to the Crown for another century.
JAMES I (1603-25 AD)
James I was born in
1566 to Mary Queen of Scots and her second husband, Henry Stewart, Lord
Darnley. He descended from the Tudors through Margaret, daughter of Henry VII :
both Mary Queen of Scots and Henry Stewart were grandchildren of Margaret
Tudor. James ascended the Scottish throne upon the abdication of his mother in
1567, but
James was profoundly affected by his years as a boy in Scottish court. Murder and intrigue had plagued the Scottish throne throughout the reigns of his mother and grandfather (James V) and had no less bearing during James's rule. His father had been butchered mere months after James' birth by enemies of Mary and Mary, because of her indiscretions and Catholic faith, was forced to abdicate the throne. Thus, James developed a guarded manner. He was thrilled to take the English crown and leave the strictures and poverty of the Scottish court.
James' twenty-nine
years of Scottish kingship did little to prepare him for the English monarchy:
Religious
dissension was the basis of an event that confirmed and fueled James' paranoia:
the Gunpowder Plot of
The relationship
between king and Parliament steadily eroded. Extravagant spending (particularly
on James' favorites), inflation and bungled foreign policies discredited James
in the eyes of Parliament. Parliament flatly refused to disburse funds to a
king who ignored their concerns and were annoyed by rewards lavished on
favorites and great amounts spent on decoration. James awarded over 200
peerages (landed titles) as, essentially, bribes designed to win loyalty, the
most controversial of which was his creation of George Villiers (his closest
advisor and homosexual partner) as Duke of Buckingham. Buckingham was highly
influential in foreign policy, which failed miserably. James tried to kindle
Spanish relations by seeking a marriage between his son Charles and the Spanish
Infanta (who was less than receptive to the clumsy overtures of Charles and
Buckingham), and by executing Sir Walter Raleigh at the behest of
James was not wholly unsuccessful as king, but his Scottish background failed to translate well into a changing English society. He is described, albeit humorously, in 1066 and All That, as such: "James I slobbered at the mouth and had favourites; he was thus a bad king"; Sir Anthony Weldon made a more somber observation: "He was very crafty and cunning in petty things, as the circumventing any great man, the change of a Favourite, &c. inasmuch as a very wise man was wont to say, he believed him the very wisest fool in Christendom."
CHARLES I (1625-49)
Charles I was born in
Controversy and
disputes dogged Charles throughout his reign. They eventually led to civil
wars, first with the Scots from 1637 and later in
Charles was
reserved (he had a residual stammer), self-righteous and had a high concept of
royal authority, believing in the divine right of kings. He was a good linguist
and a sensitive man of refined tastes. He spent a lot on the arts, inviting the
artists Van Dyck and Rubens to work in
Charles was also
deeply religious. He favoured the high Anglican form of worship, with much
ritual, while many of his subjects, particularly in
Charles had
inherited disagreements with Parliament from his father, but his own actions
(particularly engaging in ill-fated wars with
Tensions between the King and Parliament centred around finances, made worse by the costs of war abroad, and by religious suspicions at home (Charles's marriage was seen as ominous, at a time when plots against Elizabeth I and the Gunpowder Plot in James I's reign were still fresh in the collective memory, and when the Protestant cause was going badly in the war in Europe). In the first four years of his rule, Charles was faced with the alternative of either obtaining parliamentary funding and having his policies questioned by argumentative Parliaments who linked the issue of supply to remedying their grievances, or conducting a war without subsidies from Parliament. Charles dismissed his fourth Parliament in March 1629 and decided to make do without either its advice or the taxes which it alone could grant legally.
Although opponents later called this period 'the Eleven Years' Tyranny', Charles's decision to rule without Parliament was technically within the King's royal prerogative, and the absence of a Parliament was less of a grievance to many people than the efforts to raise revenue by non-parliamentary means. Charles's leading advisers, including William Laud, Archbishop of Canterbury, and the Earl of Strafford, were efficient but disliked. For much of the 1630s, the King gained most of the income he needed from such measures as impositions, exploitation of forest laws, forced loans, wardship and, above all, ship money (extended in 1635 from ports to the whole country). These measures made him very unpopular, alienating many who were the natural supporters of the Crown.
Charles was finally forced to call another Parliament in November 1640. This one, which came to be known as The Long Parliament, started with the imprisonment of Laud and Strafford (the latter was executed within six months, after a Bill of Attainder which did not allow for a defence), and the abolition of the King's Council (Star Chamber), and moved on to declare ship money and other fines illegal. The King agreed that Parliament could not be dissolved without its own consent, and the Triennial Act of 1641 meant that no more than three years could elapse between Parliaments.
The Irish uprising
of October 1641 raised tensions between the King and Parliament over the
command of the Army. Parliament issued a Grand Remonstrance repeating their
grievances, impeached 12 bishops and attempted to impeach the Queen. Charles
responded by entering the Commons in a failed attempt to arrest five Members of
Parliament, who had fled before his arrival. Parliament reacted by passing a
Militia Bill allowing troops to be raised only under officers approved by
Parliament. Finally, on
The Battle of Edgehill in October 1642 showed that early on the fighting was even. Broadly speaking, Charles retained the north, west and south-west of the country, and Parliament had London, East Anglia and the south-east, although there were pockets of resistance everywhere, ranging from solitary garrisons to whole cities. However, the Navy sided with Parliament (which made continental aid difficult), and Charles lacked the resources to hire substantial mercenary help.
Parliament had
entered an armed alliance with the predominant Scottish Presbyterian group
under the Solemn League and Covenant of 1643, and from 1644 onwards
Parliament's armies gained the upper hand - particularly with the improved
training and discipline of the New Model Army. The Self-Denying Ordinance was
passed to exclude Members of Parliament from holding army commands, thereby
getting rid of vacillating or incompetent earlier Parliamentary generals. Under
strong generals like Sir Thomas Fairfax and Oliver Cromwell, Parliament won
victories at
In May 1646,
Charles placed himself in the hands of the Scottish Army (who handed him to the
English Parliament after nine months in return for arrears of payment - the
Scots had failed to win Charles's support for establishing Presbyterianism in
England). Charles did not see his action as surrender, but as an opportunity to
regain lost ground by playing one group off against another; he saw the
monarchy as the source of stability and told parliamentary commanders 'you
cannot be without me: you will fall to ruin if I do not sustain you'. In
The Army,
concluding that permanent peace was impossible whilst Charles lived, decided
that the King must be put on trial and executed. In December, Parliament was
purged, leaving a small rump totally dependent on the Army, and the Rump
Parliament established a High Court of Justice in the first week of January
1649. On 20 January, Charles was charged with high treason 'against the realm
of
The King was
sentenced to death on 27 January. Three days later, Charles was beheaded on a
scaffold outside the Banqueting House in
The King was buried
on 9 February at Windsor, rather than Westminster Abbey, to avoid public
disorder. To avoid the automatic succession of Charles I's son Charles, an Act
was passed on 30 January forbidding the proclaiming of another monarch. On
The Civil Wars were
essentially confrontations between the monarchy and Parliament over the
definitions of the powers of the monarchy and Parliament's authority. These
constitutional disagreements were made worse by religious animosities and
financial disputes. Both sides claimed that they stood for the rule of law, yet
civil war was by definition a matter of force. Charles I, in his unwavering
belief that he stood for constitutional and social stability, and the right of
the people to enjoy the benefits of that stability, fatally weakened his
position by failing to negotiate a compromise with Parliament and paid the
price. To many, Charles was seen as a martyr for his people and, to this day,
wreaths of remembrance are laid by his supporters on the anniversary of his
death at his statue, which faces down
THE COMMONWEALTH INTERREGNUM (1649-1660)
Cromwell's
convincing military successes at
From 1649 to 1660,
Throughout the Interregnum, Cromwell's relationship with Parliament was a troubled one, with tensions over the nature of the constitution and the issue of supremacy, control of the armed forces and debate over religious toleration. In 1653 Parliament was dissolved, and under the Instrument of Government, Oliver Cromwell became Lord Protector, later refusing the offer of the throne. Further disputes with the House of Commons followed; at one stage Cromwell resorted to regional rule by a number of the army's major generals. After Cromwell's death in 1658, and the failure of his son Richard's short-lived Protectorate, the army under General Monk invited Charles I's son, Charles, to become King.
OLIVER CROMWELL (1649-1658)
Oliver Cromwell,
born in Huntingdon in 1599, was a strict Puritan with a
The Long Parliament, taking an aggressive stance, steadfastly refused to authorize any funding until Charles was brought to heel. The Triennial Act of 1641 assured the summoning of Parliament at least every three years, a formidable challenge to royal prerogative. The Tudor institutions of fiscal feudalism (manipulating antiquated feudal fealty laws to extract money), the Court of the Star Chamber and the Court of High Commission were declared illegal by Act of Parliament later in 1641. A new era of leadership from the House of Commons (backed by middle class merchants, tradesmen and Puritans) had commenced. Parliament resented the insincerity with which Charles settled with both them and the Scots, and despised his links with Catholicism.
1642 was a banner
year for Parliament. They stripped Charles of the last vestiges of prerogative
by abolishing episcopacy, placed the army and navy directly under parliamentary
supervision and declared this bill become law even if the king refused his
signature. Charles entered the House of Commons (the first king to do so),
intent on arresting John Pym, the leader of Parliament and four others, but the
five conspirators had already fled, making the king appear inept. Charles
traveled north to recruit an army and raised his standard against the forces of
Parliaments (Roundheads) at
Cromwell added
sixty horses to the Roundhead cause when war broke out. In the 1642
English society
splintered into many factions: Levellers (intent on eradicating economic castes),
Puritans, Episcopalians, remnants of the Cavaliers and other religious and
political radicals argued over the fate of the realm. The sole source of
authority rest with the army, who moved quickly to end the debates. In November
1648, the Long Parliament was reduced to a "Rump" Parliament by the
forced removal of 110 members of Parliament by Cromwell's army, with another
160 members refusing to take their seats in opposition to the action. The
remainder, barely enough for a quorum, embarked on an expedition of
constitutional change. The Rump dismantled the machinery of government, most of
that, remained loyal to the king, abolishing not only the monarchy, but also
the Privy Council, Courts of Exchequer and Admiralty and even the House of
Lords.
With the death of
the ancient constitution and Parliament in control, attention was turned to
crushing rebellions in the realm, as well as in
The Rump devolved
into a petty, self-perpetuating and unbending oligarchy, which lost credibility
in the eyes of the army. Cromwell ended the Rump Parliament with great
indignity on
The military's
solution was to form yet another version of Parliament. A House of Peers was
created, packed with Cromwell's supporters and with true veto power, but the
Commons proved most antagonistic towards Cromwell. The monarchy was restored in
all but name; Cromwell went from the title of Lord General of the Army to that
of Lord Protector of the Realm (the title of king was suggested, but wisely
rejected by Cromwell when a furor arose in the military ranks). The Lord
Protector died on
The failure of Cromwell and the Commonwealth was founded upon Cromwell being caught between opposing forces. His attempts to placate the army, the nobility, Puritans and Parliament resulted in the alienation of each group. Leaving the political machinery of the parishes and shires untouched under the new constitution was the height of inconsistency; Cromwell, the army and Parliament were unable to make a clear separation from the ancient constitution and traditional customs of loyalty and obedience to monarchy. Lacey Baldwin Smith cast an astute judgment concerning the aims of the Commonwealth: "When Commons was purged out of existence by a military force of its own creation, the country learned a profound, if bitter, Lesson: Parliament could no more exist without the crown than the crown without Parliament. The ancient constitution had never been King and Parliament but King in Parliament; when one element of that mystical union was destroyed, the other ultimately perished."
Oliver Cromwell:
Lord Protector of
There is definitely an association between John Knox and Oliver Cromwell. Knox, in his book The Reformation of Scotland, outlined the whole process without which the British model of government under Oliver Cromwell never would not have been possible. Yet Knox was more consistently covenantal in his thinking. He recognized that civil government is based on a covenant between the magistrate (or the representative or king) and the populace. His view was that when the magistrate defects from the covenant, it is the duty of the people to overthrow him.
Cromwell was not a learned scholar, as was Knox, nevertheless God elevated him to a greater leadership role. Oliver Cromwell was born into a common family of English country Puritans having none of the advantages of upbringing that would prepare him to be leader of a nation. Yet he had a God-given ability to earn the loyalty and respect of men of genius who served him throughout his lifetime. John Bunyan, author of Pilgrim's Progress served under his command in the English Civil War, and John Milton, who penned Paradise Lost, served as his personal secretary.
Cromwell's early
years were ordinary, but after a conversion experience at age 27, he was seized
by a sense of divine destiny. He became suddenly zealous for God. He was a
country squire, a bronze-faced, callous-handed man of property. He worked on
his farm, prayed and fasted often and occasionally exhorted the local
congregation during church meetings. A quiet, simple, serious-minded man, he
spoke little. But when he broke his silence, it was with great authority as he
commanded obedience without question or dispute. As a justice of the peace, he
attracted attention to himself by collaring loafers at a tavern and forcing
them to join in singing a hymn. This exploit together with quieting a
disturbance among some student factions at the neighboring town of
The English people were bent upon the establishment of a democratic parliamentary system of civil government and the elimination of the "Divine Right of Kings." King Charles I, the tyrant who had long persecuted the English Puritans by having their ears cut off and their noses slit for defying his attempts to force episcopacy on their churches, finally clashed with Parliament over a long ordeal with new and revolutionary ideas. The Puritans, or "Roundheads" as they were called, finally led a civil war against the King and his Cavaliers.
When he discerned the weaknesses of the Roundhead army, Cromwell made himself captain of the cavalry. Cromwell had never been trained in war, but from the very beginning he showed consummate genius as a general. Cromwell understood that successful revolutions were always fought by farmers so he gathered a thousand hand-picked Puritans - farmers and herdsmen - who were used to the open fields. His regiment was nicknamed "Ironsides" and was never beaten once, although they fought greatly outnumbered - at times three to one.
It was an army the
likes of which hadn't been seen since ancient
In the meantime,
Charles I invited an Irish Catholic army to his aid, an action for which he was
tried for high treason and beheaded shortly after the war. After executing the
national sovereign, the Parliament assumed power. The success of the new
democracy in
During the fifteen
years in which Cromwell ruled, he drove pirates from the
When Charles I was
beheaded, the understanding was that he had broken covenant with the people.
The view of Cromwell and the Puritans was that when the magistrate breaks
covenant, then he may legitimately be deposed. The Puritan understanding of the
covenantal nature of government was the foundation for American colonial
government. This was true of
RICHARD CROMWELL (1658-1659)
The eldest
surviving son of Oliver Cromwell, Richard was Lord Protector of
Richard served in the Parliaments of 1654 and 1656 and some government posts, but showed little of his father's ability. Constitutional changes in 1657 allowed Cromwell to choose his successor. He began to prepare Richard, appointing him to the council of state and the House of Lords.
He was proclaimed
Lord Protector immediately after his father's death, on
Richard soon faced serious problems. The army were disillusioned with a government that had grown increasingly ceremonious. They grew more restless when Richard appointed himself commander in chief. A new Parliament was elected in 1659 but a vacuum of power prompted the army council to seize power. In April 1659 it forced Richard to dissolve Parliament.
The officers now
recalled the Rump Parliament, dissolved by Oliver Cromwell in 1653. It
dismissed Richard as Lord Protector; he officially abdicated in May. Yet the
Rump was incapable of governing without financial and military support and the
army itself remained bitterly divided. George Monck, one of the army's most
capable officers, marched south from
Richard, having
amassed large debts during his time in office, left for
CHARLES II (1660-85)
Although those who
had signed Charles I's death warrant were punished (nine regicides were put to
death, and Cromwell's body was exhumed from Westminster Abbey and buried in a
common pit), Charles pursued a policy of political tolerance and power-sharing.
In April 1660, fresh elections had been held and a Convention met with the
House of Lords. Parliament invited Charles to return, and he arrived at
Despite the bitterness left from the Civil Wars and Charles I's execution, there were few detailed negotiations over the conditions of Charles II's restoration to the throne. Under the Declaration of Breda of May 1660, Charles had promised pardons, arrears of Army pay, confirmation of land purchases during the Interregnum and 'liberty of tender consciences' in religious matters, but several issues remained unresolved. However, the Militia Act of 1661 vested control of the armed forces in the Crown, and Parliament agreed to an annual revenue of £1,200,000 (a persistent deficit of £400,000-500,000 remained, leading to difficulties for Charles in his foreign policy). The bishops were restored to their seats in the House of Lords, and the Triennial Act of 1641 was repealed - there was no mechanism for enforcing the King's obligation to call Parliament at least once every three years. Under the 1660 Act of Indemnity and Oblivion, only the lands of the Crown and the Church were automatically resumed; the lands of Royalists and other dissenters which had been confiscated and/or sold on were left for private negotiation or litigation.
The early years of
Charles's reign saw an appalling plague which hit the country in 1665 with
70,000 dying in
In 1667, Charles
dismissed his Lord Chancellor, Clarendon - an adviser from Charles's days of
exile (Clarendon's daughter Anne was the first wife of Charles's brother James
and was mother of Queens Mary and Anne). As a scapegoat for the difficult
religious settlement and the Dutch war, Clarendon had failed to build a 'Court
interest' in the Commons. He was succeeded by a series of ministerial
combinations, the first of which was that of Clifford, Ashley, Buckingham,
Charles's foreign policy was a wavering balance of alliances with France and the Dutch in turn. In 1670, Charles signed the secret treaty of Dover under which Charles would declare himself a Catholic and England would side with France against the Dutch - in return Charles would receive subsidies from the King of France (thus enabling Charles some limited room for manoeuvre with Parliament, but leaving the possibility of public disclosure of the treaty by Louis). Practical considerations prevented such a public conversion, but Charles issued a Declaration of Indulgence, using his prerogative powers to suspend the penal laws against Catholics and Nonconformists. In the face of an Anglican Parliament's opposition, Charles was eventually forced to withdraw the Declaration in 1673.
In 1677 Charles married his niece Mary to William of Orange partly to restore the balance after his brother's second marriage to the Catholic Mary of Modena and to re-establish his own Protestant credentials. This assumed a greater importance as it became clear that Charles's marriage to Catherine of Braganza would produce no legitimate heirs (although Charles had a number of mistresses and illegitimate children), and his Roman Catholic brother James's position as heir apparent raised the prospect of a Catholic king.
Throughout Charles's reign, religious toleration dominated the political scene. The 1662 Act of Uniformity had imposed the use of the Book of Common Prayer, and insisted that clergy subscribe to Anglican doctrine (some 1,000 clergy lost their livings). Anti-Catholicism was widespread; the Test Act of 1673 excluded Roman Catholics from both Houses of Parliament. Parliament's reaction to the Popish Plot of 1678 (an allegation by Titus Oates that Jesuit priests were conspiring to murder the King, and involving the Queen and the Lord Treasurer, Danby) was to impeach Danby and present a Bill to exclude James (Charles's younger brother and a Roman Catholic convert) from the succession. In 1680/81 Charles dissolved three Parliaments which had all tried to introduce Exclusion Bills on the basis that 'we are not like to have a good end'.
Charles sponsored
the founding of the Royal Society in 1660 (still in existence today) to promote
scientific research. Charles also encouraged a rebuilding programme,
particularly in the last years of his reign, which included extensive
rebuilding at
Charles died in 1685, becoming a Roman Catholic on his deathbed.
JAMES II (1685-88)
Born in 1633 and
named after his grandfather James I, James II grew up in exile after the Civil
War (he served in the armies of Louis XIV) and, after his brother's
restoration, commanded the Royal Navy from 1660 to 1673. James converted to
Catholicism in 1669. Despite his conversion, James II succeeded to the throne
peacefully at the age of 51. His position was a strong one - there were
standing armies of nearly 20,000 men in his kingdoms and he had a revenue of
around £2 million. Within days of his succession, James announced the
summoning of Parliament in May but he sounded a warning note: 'the best way to
engage me to meet you often is always to use me well'. A rebellion led by
Charles's illegitimate son, the Duke of Monmouth, was easily crushed after the
battle of
James's reaction to the Monmouth rebellion was to plan the increase of the standing army and the appointment of loyal and experienced Roman Catholic officers. This, together with James's attempts to give civic equality to Roman Catholic and Protestant dissenters, led to conflict with Parliament, as it was seen as James showing favouritism towards Roman Catholics. Fear of Catholicism was widespread (in 1685, Louis XIV revoked the Edict of Nantes which gave protection to French Protestants), and the possibility of a standing army led by Roman Catholic officers produced protest in Parliament. As a result, James prorogued Parliament in 1685 and ruled without it.
James attempted to promote the Roman Catholic cause by dismissing judges and Lord Lieutenants who refused to support the withdrawal of laws penalising religious dissidents, appointing Catholics to important academic posts, and to senior military and political positions. Within three years, the majority of James's subjects had been alienated.
In 1687 James
issued the Declaration of Indulgence aiming at religious toleration; seven
bishops who asked James to reconsider were charged with seditious libel, but
later acquitted to popular Anglican acclaim. When his second (Roman Catholic)
wife, Mary of Modena, gave birth on 10 June 1688 to a son (James Stuart, later
known as the 'Old Pretender' and father of Charles Edward Stuart, 'Bonnie
Prince Charlie'), it seemed that a Roman Catholic dynasty would be established.
William of Orange, Protestant husband of James's elder daughter, Mary (by
James's first and Protestant wife, Anne Hyde), was therefore welcomed when he
invaded on
James's attempt to
regain the throne by taking a French army to
WILLIAM III (1689-1702) AND MARY II (1689-94)
In 1689 Parliament declared that James had abdicated by deserting his kingdom. William (reigned 1689-1702) and Mary (reigned 1689-94) were offered the throne as joint monarchs. They accepted a Declaration of Rights (later a Bill), drawn up by a Convention of Parliament, which limited the Sovereign's power, reaffirmed Parliament's claim to control taxation and legislation, and provided guarantees against the abuses of power which James II and the other Stuart Kings had committed. The exclusion of James II and his heirs was extended to exclude all Catholics from the throne, since 'it hath been found by experience that it is inconsistent with the safety and welfare of this protestant kingdom to be governed by a papist prince'. The Sovereign was required in his coronation oath to swear to maintain the Protestant religion.
The Bill was designed to ensure Parliament could function free from royal interference. The Sovereign was forbidden from suspending or dispensing with laws passed by Parliament, or imposing taxes without Parliamentary consent. The Sovereign was not allowed to interfere with elections or freedom of speech, and proceedings in Parliament were not to be questioned in the courts or in any body outside Parliament itself. (This was the basis of modern parliamentary privilege.) The Sovereign was required to summon Parliament frequently (the Triennial Act of 1694 reinforced this by requiring the regular summoning of Parliaments). Parliament tightened control over the King's expenditure; the financial settlement reached with William and Mary deliberately made them dependent upon Parliament, as one Member of Parliament said, 'when princes have not needed money they have not needed us'. Finally the King was forbidden to maintain a standing army in time of peace without Parliament's consent.
The Bill of Rights added further defences of individual rights. The King was forbidden to establish his own courts or to act as a judge himself, and the courts were forbidden to impose excessive bail or fines, or cruel and unusual punishments. However, the Sovereign could still summon and dissolve Parliament, appoint and dismiss Ministers, veto legislation and declare war.
The so-called 'Glorious Revolution' has been much debated over the degree to which it was conservative or radical in character. The result was a permanent shift in power; although the monarchy remained of central importance, Parliament had become a permanent feature of political life.
The Toleration Act of 1689 gave all non-conformists except Roman Catholics freedom of worship, thus rewarding Protestant dissenters for their refusal to side with James II.
After 1688 there was a rapid development of party, as parliamentary sessions lengthened and the Triennial Act ensured frequent general elections. Although the Tories had fully supported the Revolution, it was the Whigs (traditional critics of the monarchy) who supported William and consolidated their position. Recognising the advisability of selecting a Ministry from the political party with the majority in the House of Commons, William appointed a Ministry in 1696 which was drawn from the Whigs; known as the Junto, it was regarded with suspicion by Members of Parliament as it met separately, but it may be regarded as the forerunner of the modern Cabinet of Ministers.
In 1697, Parliament decided to give an annual grant of £700,000 to the King for life, as a contribution to the expenses of civil government, which included judges' and ambassadors' salaries, as well as the Royal Household's expenses.
The Bill of Rights had established the succession with the heirs of Mary II, Anne and William III in that order, but by 1700 Mary had died childless, Anne's only surviving child (out of 17 children), the Duke of Gloucester, had died at the age of 11 and William was dying. The succession had to be decided.
The Act of Settlement of 1701 was designed to secure the Protestant succession to the throne, and to strengthen the guarantees for ensuring parliamentary system of government. According to the Act, succession to the throne went to Princess Sophia, Electress of Hanover and James I's granddaughter, and her Protestant heirs.
The Act also laid down the conditions under which alone the Crown could be held. No Roman Catholic, nor anyone married to a Roman Catholic, could hold the English Crown. The Sovereign now had to swear to maintain the Church of England (and after 1707, the Church of Scotland). The Act of Settlement not only addressed the dynastic and religious aspects of succession, it also further restricted the powers and prerogatives of the Crown.
Under the Act, parliamentary consent had to be given for the Sovereign to engage in war or leave the country, and judges were to hold office on good conduct and not at royal pleasure - thus establishing judicial independence. The Act of Settlement reinforced the Bill of Rights, in that it strengthened the principle that government was undertaken by the Sovereign and his or her constitutional advisers (i.e. his or her Ministers), not by the Sovereign and any personal advisers whom he or she happened to choose.
One of William's
main reasons for accepting the throne was to reinforce the struggle against
Louis XIV. William's foreign policy was dominated by the priority to contain
French expansionism.
Never of robust
health, William died as a result of complications from a fall whilst riding at
ANNE (1702-14)
Anne, born in 1665, was the second daughter of James II and Anne Hyde. She played no part in her father's reign, but sided with her sister and brother-in-law (Mary II and William III) during the Glorious Revolution. She married George, Prince of Denmark, but the pair failed to produce a surviving heir. She died at 49 years of age, after a lifelong battle with the blood disease porphyria.
The untimely death
of William III nullified, in effect, the Settlement Act of 1701: Anne was
James' daughter through his Protestant marriage, and therefore, presented no
conflict with the act. Anne refrained from politically antagonizing Parliament,
but was compelled to attend most Cabinet meetings to keep her half-brother,
James the Old Pretender, under heel. Anne was the last sovereign to veto an act
of Parliament, as well as the final Stuart monarch. The most significant
constitutional act in her reign was the Act of Union in 1707, which created
The Stuart trait of
relying on favorites was as pronounced in Anne's reign as it had been in James
I's reign. Anne's closest confidant was Sarah Churchill, who exerted great
influence over the king. Sarah's husband was the Duke of Marlborough, who
masterly led the English to several victories in the War of Spanish Succession.
Anne and Sarah were virtually inseparable: no king's mistress had ever wielded
the power granted to the duchess, but Sarah became too confident in her
position. She developed an overbearing demeanor towards Anne, and berated the
Queen in public. In the meantime, Tory leaders had planted one Abigail Hill in
the royal household to capture Anne's need for sympathy and affection. As Anne
increasingly turned to Abigail, the question of succession rose again, pitting
the Queen and the Marlborough against each other in a heated debate. The
relationship of Anne and the Churchill's fell asunder.
Many of the internal conflicts in English society were simply the birth pains of the two-party system of government. The Whig and Tory Parties, fully enfranchised by the last years of Anne's reign, fought for control of Parliament and influence over the Queen. Anne was torn personally as well as politically by the succession question: her Stuart upbringing compelled her to choose as heir her half-brother, the Old Pretender and favorite of the Tories, but she had already elected to side with Whigs when supporting Mary and William over James II. In the end, Anne abided by the Act of Settlement, and the Whigs paved the way for the succession of their candidate, George of Hanover.
Anne's reign may be
considered successful, but somewhat lackluster in comparison to the rest of the
Stuart line. 1066 and All That, describes her with its usual tongue-in-cheek
manner: "Finally the
THE HANOVERIANS
The Hanoverians came to power in difficult circumstances that looked set to undermine the stability of British society. The first of their Kings, George I, was only 52nd in line to the throne, but the nearest Protestant according the Act of Settlement. Two descendants of James II, the deposed Stuart King, threatened to take the throne and were supported by a number of 'Jacobites' throughout the realm.
The Hanoverian
period for all that, was remarkably stable, not least because of the longevity
of its Kings. From 1714 through to 1837, there were only five, one of whom,
George III, remains the longest reigning King in British History. The period
was also one of political stability, and the development of constitutional
monarchy. For vast tracts of the eighteenth century politics were dominated by
the great Whig families, while the early nineteenth century saw Tory
domination.
It was in this
period that
THE HANOVERIANS
1714 - 1837
GEORGE I = Sophia Dorothea, dau. of
Duke of
(1714–1727)
GEORGE II = Caroline, dau. of Margrave of
(1727–1760) Brandenburg-Anspach
Saxe-Gotha-Altenberg Prince of Wales
GEORGE III = Sophia Charlotte of
(1760–1820) Mecklenburg-Strelitz
GEORGE IV
WILLIAM IV Edward, =
(1820–1830)
(1830–1837)
Duke of
(1837–1901)
GEORGE I (1714-27)
George I was born
George, Elector of
Hanover since 1698, ascended the throne upon the death of Queen Anne, under the
terms of the 1701 Act of Settlement. His mother had recently died and he
meticulously settled his affairs in
The pale little 54
year-old man arrived in
The Jacobites,
legitimist Tories, attempted to depose George and replace him with the Old
Pretender in 1715. The rebellion was a dismal failure. The Old Pretender failed
to arrive in
George's ignorance
of the English language and customs actually became the cornerstone of his
style of rule: leave
George avoided
entering European conflicts by establishing a complex web of continental
alliances. He and his Whig ministers were quite skillful; the realm managed to
stay out of war until George II declared war on
Thackeray, in The
Four Georges, allows both a glimpse of George I's character, and the
circumstances under which he ruled
GEORGE II (1727-60)
George II was born
George possessed
three passions: the army, music and his wife. He was exceptionally brave and
has the distinction of being the last British sovereign to command troops in
the field (at Dettingen against the French in 1743). He inherited his father's
love of opera, particularly the work of George Frederick Handel, who had been
George I's court musician in
Thackeray describes George II and Walpole as such, in The Four Georges "... how he was a choleric little sovereign; how he shook his fist in the face of his father's courtiers; how he kicked his coat and wig about in his rages; and called everybody thief, liar, rascal with whom he differed: you will read in all the history books; and how he speedily and shrewdly reconciled himself with the bold minister, whom he had hated during his father's life, and by whom he was served during fifteen years of his own with admirable prudence, fidelity, and success. But for Robert Walpole, we should have had the Pretender back again."
GEORGE III (r. 1760-1820)
George III was born
on
George III is widely remembered for two things: losing the American colonies and going mad. This is far from the whole truth. George's direct responsibility for the loss of the colonies is not great. He opposed their bid for independence to the end, but he did not develop the policies (such as the Stamp Act of 1765 and the Townshend duties of 1767 on tea, paper and other products) which led to war in 1775-76 and which had the support of Parliament. These policies were largely due to the financial burdens of garrisoning and administering the vast expansion of territory brought under the British Crown in America, the costs of a series of wars with France and Spain in North America, and the loans given to the East India Company (then responsible for administering India). By the 1770s, and at a time when there was no income tax, the national debt required an annual revenue of £4 million to service it.
The declaration of
American independence on
The American war, its political aftermath and family anxieties placed great strain on George in the 1780s. After serious bouts of illness in 1788-89 and again in 1801, George became permanently deranged in 1810. He was mentally unfit to rule in the last decade of his reign; his eldest son - the later George IV - acted as Prince Regent from 1811. Some medical historians have said that George III's mental instability was caused by a hereditary physical disorder called porphyria.
George's accession in 1760 marked a significant change in royal finances. Since 1697, the monarch had received an annual grant of £700,000 from Parliament as a contribution to the Civil List, i.e. civil government costs (such as judges' and ambassadors' salaries) and the expenses of the Royal Household. In 1760, it was decided that the whole cost of the Civil List should be provided by Parliament in return for the surrender of the hereditary revenues by the King for the duration of his reign. (This arrangement still applies today, although civil government costs are now paid by Parliament, rather than financed directly by the monarch from the Civil List.)
The first 25 years
of George's reign were politically controversial for reasons other than the
conflict with
Although he was careful not to exceed his powers, George's limited ability and lack of subtlety in dealing with the shifting alliances within the Tory and Whig political groupings in Parliament meant that he found it difficult to bring together ministries which could enjoy the support of the House of Commons. His problem was solved first by the long-lasting ministry of Lord North (1770-82) and then, from 1783, by Pitt the Younger, whose ministry lasted until 1801.
George III was the
most attractive of the Hanoverian monarchs. He was a good family man (there
were 15 children) and devoted to his wife, Charlotte of Mecklenburg-Strelitz,
for whom he bought the Queen's House (later enlarged to become
Being extremely conscientious, George read all government papers and sometimes annoyed his ministers by taking such a prominent interest in government and policy. His political influence could be decisive. In 1801, he forced Pitt the Younger to resign when the two men disagreed about whether Roman Catholics should have full civil rights. George III, because of his coronation oath to maintain the rights and privileges of the Church of England, was against the proposed measure.
One of the most
cultured of monarchs, George started a new royal collection of books (65,000 of
his books were later given to the
George III also
took a keen interest in agriculture, particularly on the crown estates at
GEORGE IV (1820-30)
George IV was 48 when he became Regent in 1811. He had
secretly and illegally married a Roman Catholic, Mrs Fitzherbert. In 1795 he
officially married Princess Caroline of
An outstanding, if
extravagant, collector and builder, George IV acquired many important works of
art (now in the Royal Collection), built the Royal Pavilion at
Beset by debts,
George was in a weak position in relation to his Cabinet of ministers. His
concern for royal prerogative was sporadic; when the Prime Minister Lord
Liverpool fell ill in 1827, George at one stage suggested that ministers should
choose
George's profligacy
and marriage difficulties meant that he never regained much popularity, and he
spent his final years in seclusion at
WILLIAM IV (1830-37)
At the age of 13, William became a midshipman and began a career in the Royal Navy. In 1789, he was made duke of Clarence. He retired from the Navy in 1790. Between 1791 and 1811 he lived with his mistress, the actress Mrs Jordan, and the growing family of their children known as the Fitzclarences. William married Princess Adelaide of Saxe-Meiningen in 1818, but their children died in infancy. The third son of George III, William became heir apparent at the age of 62 when his older brother died.
William's reign
(reigned 1830-37) was dominated by the Reform crisis, beginning almost
immediately when
The Reform Bill abolished some of the worst abuses of the electoral system (for example, representation for so called 'rotten boroughs', which had long ceased to be of any importance, was stopped, and new industrial towns obtained representation). The Reform Act also introduced standardised rules for the franchise (different boroughs had previously had varying franchise rules) and, by extending the franchise to the middle classes, greatly increased the role of public opinion in the political process.
William understood
the theory of the more limited monarchy, once saying 'I have my view of things,
and I tell them to my ministers. If they do not adopt them, I cannot help it. I
have done my duty.' William died a month after
Queen
In the early part
of her reign, she was influenced by two men: her first Prime Minister, Lord
Melbourne, and her husband,
Her marriage to
In foreign policy,
the Queen's influence during the middle years of her reign was generally used
to support peace and reconciliation. In 1864,
During
Despite this
decline in the Sovereign's power,
After the Second Reform Act of 1867, and the growth of the two-party (Liberal and Conservative) system, the Queen's room for manoeuvre decreased. Her freedom to choose which individual should occupy the premiership was increasingly restricted. In 1880, she tried, unsuccessfully, to stop William Gladstone - whom she disliked as much as she admired Disraeli and whose policies she distrusted - from becoming Prime Minister. She much preferred the Marquess of Hartington, another statesman from the Liberal party which had just won the general election. She did not get her way. She was a very strong supporter of Empire, which brought her closer both to Disraeli and to the Marquess of Salisbury, her last Prime Minister. Although conservative in some respects - like many at the time she opposed giving women the vote - on social issues, she tended to favour measures to improve the lot of the poor, such as the Royal Commission on housing. She also supported many charities involved in education, hospitals and other areas.
Victoria and her
family travelled and were seen on an unprecedented scale, thanks to transport
improvements and other technical changes such as the spread of newspapers and
the invention of photography.
In her later years,
she almost became the symbol of the
Despite her
advanced age,
SAXE-COBURG-GOTHA
The name
Saxe-Coburg-Gotha came to the British Royal Family in 1840 with the marriage of
Queen
The only British
monarch of the House of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha was King Edward VII, who reigned for
nine years at the beginning of the modern age in the early years of the 20th
century. King George V replaced the German-sounding title with that of
SAXE-COBURG AND
1837 - 1917
THE
1917 – PRESENT DAY
(1837-1910) (Prince Consort)
EDWARD VII = m. Princess Alexandra, dau. of CHRISTIAN IX, King of
(1910 –
1936)
DUKE OF
EDWARD VIII 1936-1952 Bowes-Lyon, dau. of Earl of
(abdicated 1936) Strathmore and Kinghorne
(Queen Elizabeth
The Queen Mother)
QUEEN ELIZABETH II
(1952 – present day)
EDWARD VII (1901-10)
Edward VII, born
Edward succeeded
the throne upon
Social legislation was the focus of Parliament during Edward's reign. The 1902 Education Act provided subsidized secondary education, and the Liberal government passed a series of acts benefiting children after 1906; old age pensions were established in 1908. The 1909 Labour Exchanges Act laid the groundwork for national health insurance, which led to a constitutional crisis over the means of budgeting such social legislation. The budget set forth by David Lloyd-George proposed major tax increases on wealthy landowners and was defeated in Parliament. Prime Minister Asquith appealed to Edward to create several new peerages to swing the vote, but Edward steadfastly refused. Edward died amidst the budgetary crisis at age sixty-eight, which was resolved the following year by the Liberal government's passage of the act.
Despite Edward's colorful personal life and Victoria's perceptions of him as profligate, Edward ruled peacefully (aside from the Boer War of 1899-1902) and successfully during his short reign, which is remarkable considering the shifts in European power that occurred in the first decade of the twentieth century.
THE HOUSE OF
The House of Windsor came into being in 1917, when the name was adopted as the British Royal Family's official name by a proclamation of King George V, replacing the historic name of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha. It remains the family name of the current Royal Family.
During the
twentieth century, kings and queens of the
The period saw the modernization of the monarchy in tandem with the many social changes which have taken place over the past 80 years. One such modernization has been the use of mass communication technologies to make the Royal Family accessible to a broader public the world over. George V adopted the new relatively new medium of radio to broadcast across the Empire at Christmas; the Coronation ceremony was broadcast on television for the first time in 1953, at The Queen's insistence; and the World Wide Web has been used for the past five years to provide a global audience with information about the Royal Family. During this period British monarchs have also played a vital part in promoting international relations, retaining ties with former colonies in their role as Head of the Commonwealth.
GEORGE V (1910-36)
George V was born
George ascended the
throne in the midst of a constitutional crisis: the budget controversy of 1910.
Tories in the House of Lords were at odds with Liberals in the Commons pushing
for social reforms. When George agreed to create enough Liberal peerages to
pass the measure the Lords capitulated and gave up the power of absolute veto,
resolving the problem officially with passage of the Parliament Bill in 1911.
The first World War broke out in 1914, during which George and May made several
visits to the front; on one such visit, George's horse rolled on top of him,
breaking his pelvis - George remained in pain for the rest of his life from the
injury. The worldwide depression of 1929-1931 deeply affected
The relationship
between
The nature of the
monarchy evolved through the influence of George. In contrast to his
grandmother and father -
EDWARD VIII ( JANUARY-DECEMBER 1936)
As Prince of Wales, Edward VIII (reigned
January-December 1936) had successfully carried out a number of regional visits
(including areas hit by economic depression) and other official engagements.
These visits and his official tours overseas, together with his good war record
and genuine care for the underprivileged, had made him popular.
The first monarch to be a qualified pilot, Edward created The King's Flight
(now known as 32 (The Royal) Squadron) in 1936 to provide air transport for the
Royal family's official duties.
In 1930, the Prince, who had already had a number of affairs, had met and fallen in love with a married American woman, Mrs Wallis Simpson. Concern about Edward's private life grew in the Cabinet, opposition parties and the Dominions, when Mrs Simpson obtained a divorce in 1936 and it was clear that Edward was determined to marry her.
Eventually Edward
realised he had to choose between the Crown and Mrs Simpson who, as a
twice-divorced woman, would not have been acceptable as Queen. On
During the Second
World War, the Duke of Windsor escaped from
GEORGE VI (1936-52)
George VI, born
Due to the
controversy surrounding the abdication of Edward VIII, popular opinion of the
throne was at its lowest point since the latter half of
George predicted
the hardships following the end of the war as early as 1941. From 1945-50,
In the context of royal history, George VI was one of only five monarchs who succeeded the throne in the lifetime of his predecessor; Henry IV, Edward IV, Richard III, and William III were the other four. George, upon his ascension, wrote to Prime Minister Stanley Baldwin concerning the state of the monarchy: "I am new to the job but I hope that time will be allowed to me to make amends for what has happened." His brother Edward continued to advise George on matters of the day, but such advice was a hindrance, as it was contradictory to policies pursued by George's ministers. The "slim, quiet man with tired eyes" (as described by Logue) had a troubled reign, but he did much to leave the monarchy in better condition than he found it.
ELIZABETH II (1952-PRESENT)
Elizabeth II, born
Monarchy, as an
institution in
THE MONARCHY TODAY
THE QUEEN'S ROLE
The Queen is the
Behind and in front of the cameras, The Queen's work goes on. No two days in The Queen's working life are ever the same.
QUEEN'S ROLE IN THE MODERN STATE
Until the end of the 17th century, British monarchs were executive monarchs - that is, they had the right to make and pass legislation. Since the beginning of the eighteenth century, the monarch has become a constitutional monarch, which means that he or she is bound by rules and conventions and remains politically impartial.
On almost all matters he or she acts on the advice of ministers. While acting constitutionally, the Sovereign retains an important political role as Head of State, formally appointing prime ministers, approving certain legislation and bestowing honours.
The Queen also has important roles to play in other organisations, including the Armed Forces and the Church of England.
QUEEN'S ROLE IN THE MODERN STATE
Until the end of the 17th century, British monarchs were executive monarchs - that is, they had the right to make and pass legislation. Since the beginning of the eighteenth century, the monarch has become a constitutional monarch, which means that he or she is bound by rules and conventions and remains politically impartial.
On almost all matters he or she acts on the advice of ministers. While acting constitutionally, the Sovereign retains an important political role as Head of State, formally appointing prime ministers, approving certain legislation and bestowing honours.
The Queen also has important roles to play in other organisations, including the Armed Forces and the Church of England.
QUEEN AND COMMONWEALTH
The Queen is not only Queen of the
Most of these countries have progressed from British rule to independent self-government, and the Commonwealth now serves to foster international co-operation and trade links between people all over the world.
The Queen is also Queen of a number of
Commonwealth realms, including
ROYAL VISITS
Visits to all kinds of places
throughout the
THE QUEEN'S WORKING DAY
The Queen has many different
duties to perform every day. Some are familiar public duties, such as
Investitures, ceremonies, receptions or visits within the
CEREMONIES AND PAGEANTRY
The colourful ceremonies and
traditions associated with the British Monarchy are rich in history and meaning
and fascinating to watch. In some, The Queen takes part in person. In others -
such as Guard Mounting or Swan Upping - the ceremony is performed in The
Queen's name. Many of the ceremonies take place on a regular basis - every year
or even every day - which means that British people and visitors to
THE QUEEN'S CEREMONIAL DUTIES
The Queen has many ceremonial roles. Some - such as the State Opening of Parliament, Audiences with new ambassadors and the presentation of decorations at Investitures - relate to The Queen's role as Head of State.
Others - such as the presentation of Maundy money and the hosting of garden parties - are historical ceremonies in which kings and queens have taken part for decades or even centuries.
ROYAL PAGEANTRY AND TRADITIONS
In addition to the events in which The Queen takes part, there are many other ceremonies and traditions associated with the British Monarchy. Some of these have military associations, involving troops from the present Armed Forces as well as the members of the historical royal bodyguard, the Yeomen of the Guard. Others are traditions which are less well known than the colourful pageantry but are interesting in their own right. Some - such as the customary broadcasts by the Sovereign on Christmas Day and Commonwealth Day - are fairly recent in origin, but have rapidly become familiar and popular traditions.
ROYAL SUCCESSION
When a sovereign dies, or abdicates, a successor is immediately decided according to rules which were laid down at the end of the seventeenth century. The coronation of a new sovereign is a ceremony of great pageantry and celebration that has remained essentially the same for over a thousand years. As well as explaining accession, succession and coronation, this section looks at the titles which have been held by different members of the Royal Family throughout history.
THE ROYAL HOUSEHOLD
Divided into five departments, the Royal Household assists The Queen in carrying out her official duties. Members of the Royal Household carry out the work and roles which were performed by courtiers historically. There are 645 full-time employees, employed across a wide range of professions. People employed within the Royal Household are recruited from the general workforce on merit, in terms of qualifications, experience and aptitude. Details of the latest vacancies are listed in the Recruitment pages of this section.
The Royal Household includes The Queen's Household, plus the Households of other members of the Royal Family who undertake public engagements. The latter comprise members of their private offices and other people who assist with their public duties.
ROYAL HOUSEHOLD DEPARTMENTS
Royal Household's functions are divided across five departments, under
the overall authority of the Lord Chamberlain, the senior member of The Queen's
Household. These departments developed over centuries and originated in the
functions of the
Most of the departments are based in
In addition to the full-time members of the Royal Household, there are other part-time members of The Queen's Household. These include the Great Officers of State who take part in important Royal ceremonies, as well as Ladies-in-waiting, who are appointed personally by The Queen and female members of the Royal Family.
RECRUITMENT
People are employed within the Royal Household from a wide range of sectors and professions, including catering, housekeeping, accountancy, secretarial and administrative fields, public relations, human resources management, art curatorship and strategic planning disciplines. The special nature of the Royal Household means that unique career opportunities are available.
Employment in the Royal Household offers excellent career opportunities for those who wish to take a new direction. Positions in the Royal Household receive good remuneration and benefits. For domestic positions, there are often enhanced by accommodation. The Royal Household is also committed to training and development, including NVQ and vocational training, general management and skills-based training across a range of disciplines - from carriage driving to an in-house diploma for footmen which is widely recognised in its specialised field as a valued vocational qualification.
Jobs at
A number of vacancies occur on a regular basis, including positions as housemaids,
footmen and secretaries. In addition, nearly 200 Wardens are employed each year
for
Recruitment is in all cases on merit, in terms of qualifications, experience and aptitude. The Royal Household is committed to Equal Opportunities.
ANNIVERSARIES
Since 1917, the Sovereign has sent congratulatory messages to those celebrating their 100th and 105th birthday and every year thereafter, and to those celebrating their Diamond Wedding (60th), 65th, 70th wedding anniversaries and every year thereafter. For many people, receiving a message from The Queen on these anniversaries is a very special moment.
For data privacy reasons, there is no automatic alert from government records for wedding anniversaries. The Department for Work and Pensions informs the Anniversaries Office of birthdays for recipients of UK State pensions. However, to ensure that a message is sent for birthdays and wedding anniversaries alike, an application needs to be made by a relative or friend in advance of the special day.
The Queen's congratulatory messages consist of a card containing a personalised message with a facsimile signature. The card comes in a special envelope, which is delivered through the normal postal channels.
More information about applying for a message and interesting facts about the tradition are contained in this section.
ROYAL FINANCES
This section provides the latest information on Head of State expenditure, together with information about Royal financial arrangements.
It includes information about the four sources of funding of The Queen (or officials of the Royal Household acting on her behalf). The Civil List meets official expenditure relating to The Queen's duties as Head of State and Head of the Commonwealth. Grants-in-Aid from Parliament provide upkeep of the Royal Palaces and for Royal travel. The Privy Purse is traditional income for the Sovereign's public and private use. Her Majesty's personal income meets entirely private expenditure.
The Queen pays tax on her personal income and capital gains. The Civil List and the Grants-in-Aid are not taxed because they cover official expenditure. The Privy Purse is fully taxable, subject to a deduction for official expenditure.
These pages also contain information about the financial arrangements of other members of the Royal Family, together with information on the Royal Philatelic Collection.
HEAD OF STATE EXPENDITURE 2000-01
Head of State expenditure is the official expenditure relating to The Queen's duties as Head of State and Head of the Commonwealth. Head of State expenditure is met from public funds in exchange for the surrender by The Queen of the revenue from the Crown Estate.
Head of State expenditure for 2001-02, at £35.3 million, is 1.0%
higher than in the previous year (a decrease of 1.3% in real terms). The
£350,000 increase is mainly attributable to fire precautions work at the
Palace of Holyroodhouse, offset by the fact that costs transferred from other
funding sources to the Civil List with effect from 1st April 2001 are only
included in 2001 Civil List expenditure for nine months. They will be included
for a full year in 2002 and subsequently. Costs have been transferred to the
Civil List from other funding sources in order to utilise the Civil List reserve
brought forward at
SOURCES OF FUNDING
The four sources of funding of The Queen, or officials of the Royal Household acting on Her Majesty's behalf, are: the Civil List, the Grants-in-Aid for upkeep of Royal Palaces and for Royal travel, the Privy Purse and The Queen's personal wealth and income.
FINANCIAL ARRANGEMENTS OF THE PRINCE OF
The Prince of Wales does not receive any money from the State. Instead, he receives the annual net surplus of the Duchy of Cornwall and uses it to meet the costs of all aspects of his public and private commitments, and those of Prince William and Prince Harry.
The Duchy's name is derived from the Earldom of Cornwall, which Edward
III elevated to a duchy in 1337. The Duchy's founding charter included the gift
of estates spread throughout
After 660 years, the Duchy's land holdings have become more diversified, but the Duchy is still predominantly an agricultural estate. Today, it consists of around 57,000 hectares, mostly in the South of England. It is run on a commercial basis, as prescribed by the parliamentary legislation which governs its activities.
Prince Charles became the 24th Duke of Cornwall on The Queen's accession in 1952. He is in effect a trustee, and is not entitled to the proceeds of disposals of assets. The Prince must pass on the estate intact, so that it continues to provide an income from its assets for future Dukes of Cornwall.
The Duchy's net surplus for the year to
FINANCES OF THE OTHER MEMBERS OF THE ROYAL FAMILY
Under the Civil List Acts, The Duke of Edinburgh receives an annual parliamentary allowance to enable him to carry out public duties. Since 1993, The Queen has repaid to the Treasury the annual parliamentary allowances received by other members of the Royal family.
The annual amounts payable to members of the Royal family (which are set every ten years) were reset at their 1990 levels for the next ten years, until December 2010. Apart from an increase of £45,000 on the occasion of The Earl of Wessex's marriage, these amounts remain as follows:
Parliamentary annuity (not repaid by The Queen)
|
HRH The Duke of |
£359,000 |
Parliamentary annuities (repaid by The Queen)
|
HRH The Duke of |
£249,000 |
|
HRH The Earl of |
£141,000 |
|
HRH The Princess Royal |
£228,000 |
|
HRH Princess Alice, Duchess of |
£87,000 |
|
TRH The Duke and Duchess of |
|
* Of the £636,000, £175,000 is provided by The Queen to The Duke and Duchess of Gloucester, £236,000 to The Duke and Duchess of Kent and £225,000 to Princess Alexandra.
As with the Civil List itself, most of these sums are spent on staff who support public engagements and correspondence.
TAXATION
The Queen has always been subject to Value Added Tax and other indirect taxes and she has paid local rates (Council Tax) on a voluntary basis. In 1992, however, The Queen offered to pay income tax and capital gains tax on a voluntary basis. As from 1993, her personal income has been taxable as for any taxpayer and the Privy Purse is fully taxable, subject to a deduction for official expenditure. The Civil List and the Grants-in-Aid are not remuneration for The Queen and are thus disregarded for tax.
Although The Queen's estate will be subject to Inheritance Tax, bequests from Sovereign to Sovereign are exempt. This is because constitutional impartiality requires an appropriate degree of financial independence for the Sovereign and because the Sovereign is unable to generate significant new wealth through earnings or business activities. Also, the Sovereign cannot retire and so cannot mitigate Inheritance Tax by passing on assets at an early stage to his or her successor.
As a Crown body, the Duchy of Cornwall is tax exempt, but since 1969 The Prince of Wales has made voluntary contributions to the Exchequer. As from 1993, The Prince's income from the Duchy has been fully subject to tax on a voluntary basis. He has always paid tax, including income tax, in all other respects.
ROYAL ASSETS
The Queen does not 'own' the Royal Palaces, art treasures from the Royal Collection, jewellery heirlooms and the Crown Jewels, all of which are held by Her Majesty as Sovereign and not as an individual. They must be passed on to The Queen's successor in due course. The Queen and some members of the Royal Family past and present have made private collections - such as the stamp collection begun by George V. This is separate to the Royal Collection, although exhibitions and loans of stamps are sometimes made.
SYMBOLS
Many of the most familiar objects and events in national life incorporate Royal symbols or represent the Monarchy in some way. Flags, coats of arms, the crowns and treasures used at coronations and some ceremonies, stamps, coins and the singing of the national anthem have strong associations with the Monarchy and play a significant part in our daily existence. Other objects - such as the Great Seal of the Realm - may be less familiar to the general public but still have a powerful symbolic role.
NATIONAL ANTHEM
'God Save The King' was a
patriotic song first publicly performed in
In September 1745 the 'Young Pretender' to the British Throne, Prince
Charles Edward Stuart, defeated the army of King George II at Prestonpans, near
There
is no authorised version of the National Anthem as the words are a matter of
tradition. Additional verses have been added down the years, but these are
rarely used. The words used are those sung in 1745, substituting 'Queen' for
'King' where appropriate. On official occasions, only the first verse is
usually sung, as follows:
God save our gracious Queen!
Long live our noble Queen!
God save the Queen!
Send her victorious,
Happy and glorious,
Long to reign over us,
God save the Queen.
An additional verse is occasionally sung:
Thy choicest gifts in store
On her be pleased to pour,
Long may she reign.
May she defend our laws,
And ever give us cause,
To sing with heart and voice,
God save the Queen.
The British tune has been used in other countries - as European visitors
to
ROYAL WARRANTS
Royal Warrants are granted to people or companies who have regularly supplied goods or services for a minimum of five consecutive years to The Queen, The Duke of Edinburgh, Queen Elizabeth The Queen Mother or The Prince of Wales. They are advised by the Lord Chamberlain who is head of the Royal Household and chairman of the Royal Household Tradesmen's Warrants Committee. Each of these four members of the Royal family can grant only one warrant to any individual business. However, a business may hold warrants from more than one member of the Royal family and a handful of companies holds all four.
The warrants are a mark of recognition that tradesmen are regular suppliers of goods and services to the Royal households. Strict regulations govern the warrant, which allows the grantee or his company to use the legend 'By Appointment' and display the Royal Arms on his products, such as stationery, advertisements and other printed material, in his or her premises and on delivery vehicles.
A Royal Warrant is initially granted for five years, after which time it comes up for review by the Royal Household Tradesmen's Warrants Committee. Warrants may not be renewed if the quality or supply for the product or service is insufficient, as far as the relevant Royal Household is concerned. A Warrant may, however, be cancelled at any time and is automatically reviewed if the grantee dies or leaves the business, or if the firm goes bankrupt or is sold. There are rules to ensure that high standards are maintained.
Since the Middle Ages, tradesmen who have acted as suppliers of goods and services to the Sovereign have received formal recognition. In the beginning, this patronage took the form of royal charters given collectively to various guilds in trades and crafts which later became known as livery companies. Over the centuries, the relationship between the Crown and individual tradesmen was formalised by the issue of royal warrants.
In the reign of Henry VIII, Thomas Hewytt was appointed to 'Serve the Court with Swannes and Cranes and all kinds of Wildfoule'. A hard-working Anne Harris was appointed as the 'King's Laundresse'. Elizabeth I's household book listed, among other things, the Yeomen Purveyors of 'Veales, Beeves & Muttons; Sea & Freshwater Fish'. In 1684 goods and services to the Palace included a Haberdasher of Hats, a Watchmaker in Reversion, an Operator for the Teeth and a Goffe-Club Maker. According to the Royal Kalendar of 1789, a Pin Maker, a Mole Taker, a Card Maker and a Rat Catcher are among other tradesmen appointed to the court. A notable omission was the Bug Taker - at that time one of the busiest functionaries at court but perhaps not one to be recorded in a Royal Kalendar. Records also show that in 1776 Mr Savage Bear was 'Purveyor of Greens Fruits and Garden Things', and that in 1820 Mr William Giblet was supplying meat to the table of George IV.
Warrant holders today represent a large cross-section of British trade and industry (there is a small number of foreign names), ranging from dry cleaners to fishmongers, and from agricultural machinery to computer software. A number of firms have a record of Royal Warrants reaching back over more than 100 years. Warrant-holding firms do not provide their goods or services free to the Royal households, and all transactions are conducted on a strictly commercial basis. There are currently approximately 800 Royal Warrant holders, holding over 1,100 Royal Warrants between them (some have more than one Royal Warrant).
On
The Association acts both in a supervisory role to ensure that the standards of quality and reliability in their goods and services are upheld, and as a channel of communication for its members in their dealings with the various departments of the Royal Household. The Association ensures that the Royal Warrant is not used by those not entitled and is correctly applied by those who are.
BANK NOTES AND COINAGE
There are close ties - past and present - between the Monarchy and the monetary system. They can be seen, for example, in the title of the 'Royal Mint' and the representation of the monarch on all circulating British coinage.
The first coins were struck in the
In the eighth century, as strong kings emerged with power over more than one region, they began to centralize the currency. Offa introduced a new coinage in the form of the silver penny, which for centuries was to be the basis of the English currency. Alfred introduced further changes by authorising mints in the burhs he had founded. By 800 AD coins regularly bore the names of the kings for whom they were struck. A natural development was the representation of their own images on their coins. Coinage played a part in spreading the fame of kings - the more often coins passed through men's hands, and the further afield they were taken by plunder or trade, the more famous their royal sponsors became. Athelstan (d. 939) is the first English king to be shown on his coins wearing a crown or circlet. For many people, the king's image on coins was the only likeness of the monarch which they were likely to see in their lifetimes.
By the end of the tenth century the English monarchy had the most sophisticated coinage system in western Europe. The system allowed kings to exploit the wealth of a much enlarged kingdom and to raise the very large sums of money which they had to use as bribes to limit the effect of the Vikings' invasions at the end of the tenth century.
For five centuries in
The English monarchy was the first monarchy in the
After the death of Alexander III in 1289,
In the
After over a thousand years and many changes in production techniques,
the monarch continues to be depicted on the obverse of modern
During The Queen's reign there have been four representations of Her Majesty on circulating coinage. The original coin portrait of Her Majesty was by Mary Gillick and was adopted at the beginning of the reign in 1952. The following effigy was by Arnold Machin OBE, RA, approved by the Queen in 1964. That portrait, which features the same tiara as the latest effigy, was used on all the decimal coins from 1968. The next effigy was by Raphael Maklouf FRSA and was adopted in 1985. The latest portrait was introduced in 1998 and is the work of Ian Rank-Broadley FRBS, FSNAD. In keeping with tradition, the new portrait continues to show the Queen in profile facing to the right. Her Majesty is wearing the tiara which she was given as a wedding present by her grandmother Queen Mary.
Images of the monarch on bank notes are a much more recent invention. Although bank notes began to be issued from the late seventeenth century, they did not come to predominate over coins until the nineteenth century. Only since 1960 has the British Sovereign been featured on English bank notes, giving The Queen a unique distinction above her predecessors.
STAMPS
There is a close relationship between the British Monarchy and the
postal system of the
For centuries letters on affairs of State to and from the Sovereign's
Court, and despatches in time of war, were carried by Messengers of the Court
and couriers employed for particular occasions. Henry VIII's Master of the
Posts set up post-stages along the major roads of the kingdom where Royal
Couriers, riding post-haste, could change horses. In Elizabeth I's day, those
carrying the royal mail were to 'blow their horn as oft as they met company, or
four times every mile'. Letters of particular urgency - for example, reprieves for
condemned prisoners - bore inscriptions such as 'Haste, haste - post haste -
haste for life for life hast' and the sign of the gallows. During the reign of
James I (1603-25) all four posts of the kingdom still centred on the Court: The
Courte to Barwicke (the post to
Charles I opened his posts to
public use, as a means of raising money. Although public use of the royal posts
increased, the running of the mail continued to centre round the post
requirements of the Sovereign's Court. Until the 1780's the Mails did not leave
London until the Court letters had been received at the General Post Office,
and as late as 1807 Court letters coming into London were, unlike ordinary
letters, delivered the moment the mail arrived. The postal system rapidly
spread during
Symbols of the royal origins of the
COATS OF ARMS
The function of the Royal Coat of
Arms is to identify the person who is Head of State. In respect of the
The Royal Coat of Arms of the
Separate Scottish and English quarterings of the Royal Arms originate
from the
The special position of
Coats of Arms of members of the Royal Family are broadly similar to The Queen's with small differences to identify them.
GREAT SEAL
The Great Seal of the Realm is the chief seal of the Crown, used to show the monarch's approval of important state documents. In today's constitutional monarchy, the Sovereign acts on the advice of the Government of the day, but the seal remains an important symbol of the Sovereign's role as Head of State.
The practice of using this seal began in the reign of Edward the Confessor in the 11th century, when a double-sided metal matrix with an image of the Sovereign was used to make an impression in wax for attachment by ribbon or cord to royal documents. The seal meant that the monarch did not need to sign every official document in person; authorisation could be carried out instead by an appointed officer. In centuries when few people could read or write, the seal provided a pictorial expression of royal approval which all could understand. The uniqueness of the official seal - only one matrix was in existence at any one time - also meant it was difficult to forge or tamper with official documents.
The Great Seal matrix has changed
many times throughout the centuries. A new matrix is engraved at the beginning
of each reign on the order of the Sovereign; it is traditional that on the
death of the Sovereign the old seal is used until the new Sovereign orders
otherwise. For many monarchs, a single seal has sufficed. In the case of some
long-reigning monarchs, such as Queen
The Queen has had two Great Seals during her reign. The first was
designed by Gilbert Ledward and came into service in 1953. Through long usage
and the heat involved in the sealing process, the matrix lost definition. From
summer 2001 a new Great Seal, designed by sculptor James Butler and produced by
the Royal Mint, has been in use. At a meeting of the Privy Council on
The Great Seal matrix will be used to create seals for a range of documents
requiring royal approval, including letters patent, royal proclamations,
commissions, some writs (such as writs for the election of Members of
Parliament), and the documents which give power to sign and ratify treaties.
During the year 2000-01, more than 100 documents passed under the Great Seal.
Separate seals exist for
The process of sealing takes place nowadays at the House of Lords in the office of the Clerk of the Crown in Chancery. A system of 'colour coding' is used for the seal impression, depending on the type of document to which it is being affixed. Dark green seals are affixed to letters patent which elevate individuals to the peerage; blue seals are used for documents relating to the close members of the Royal Family; and scarlet red is used for documents appointing a bishop and for most other patents.
FLAGS
A number of different types of
flag are associated with The Queen and the Royal Family. The Union Flag (or
Union Jack) originated as a Royal flag, although it is now also flown by many
people and organisations elsewhere in the
CROWNS AND JEWELS
The crowns and treasures associated
with the British Monarchy are powerful symbols of monarchy for the British
people and, as such, their value represents more than gold and precious stones.
Today the crowns and treasures associated with English kings and queens since
1660 and earlier are used for the Coronation of Monarchs of the
TRANSPORT
The Queen's State and private motor cars are housed in the Royal Mews. For official duties - providing transport for State and other visitors as well as The Queen herself - there are nine State limousines, consisting of one Bentley, five Rolls-Royces and three Daimlers. They are painted in Royal maroon livery and the Bentley and Rolls-Royces uniquely do not have registration number plates. Other vehicles include a number of Vauxhall Sintra 'people carriers'.
The most recent State car, which is used for most of The Queen's engagements, is a State Bentley presented to The Queen to mark her Golden Jubilee in 2002. The one-off model, conceived by a Bentley-led consortium of British motor industry manufacturers and suppliers, is the first Bentley to be used for State occasions. It was designed with input from The Queen, The Duke of Edinburgh and Her Majesty's Head Chauffeur.
In technical terms, the car has a monocoque construction, enabling greater use to be made of the vehicle's interior space. This means the transmission tunnel now runs underneath the floor, without encroaching on the cabin and has enabled the stylists to work with a lowered roofline whilst preserving the required interior height. The rear doors have been redesigned enabling The Queen to stand up straight before stepping down to the ground. The rear seats are upholstered in Hield Lambswool Sateen cloth whilst all remaining upholstery is in light grey Connolly hide. Carpets are pale blue in the rear and dark blue in the front.
A Rolls-Royce Phantom VI was presented to The Queen in 1978 for her Silver Jubilee by the Society of Motor Manufacturers and Traders. The oldest car in the fleet is the Phantom IV, built in 1950, 5.76 litre with a straight eight engine and a Mulliner body. There is also a 1987 Phantom VI and two identical Phantom V models built in the early 1960s. The 1978 Phantom VI and the two Phantom V models have a removable exterior roof covering, which exposes an inner lining of perspex, giving a clear view of passengers.
All the cars have fittings for the shield bearing the Royal Coat of Arms and the Royal Standard. The Queen has her own mascot for use on official cars. Designed for her by the artist Edward Seago in the form of St George on a horse poised victorious over a slain dragon, it is made of silver and can be transferred from car to car as necessary. The Duke of Edinburgh's mascot, a heraldic lion wearing a crown, is adapted from his arms.
For her private use The Queen drives a Daimler Jaguar saloon or a
Vauxhall estate (like every other qualified driver, The Queen holds a driving
licence). The Duke of Edinburgh has a Range Rover and, for short journeys round
A number of Royal Mews vehicles have now been converted to run on liquefied petroleum gas (LPG) - a more environmentally friendly fuel than petrol or diesel. Converted vehicles include one of the Rolls-Royce Phantom IVs, a Daimler and The Duke of Edinburgh's Metrocab.
CARS
The Queen's State and private motor cars are housed in the Royal Mews. For official duties - providing transport for State and other visitors as well as The Queen herself - there are nine State limousines, consisting of one Bentley, five Rolls-Royces and three Daimlers. They are painted in Royal maroon livery and the Bentley and Rolls-Royces uniquely do not have registration number plates. Other vehicles include a number of Vauxhall Sintra 'people carriers'.
The most recent State car, which is used for most of The Queen's engagements, is a State Bentley presented to The Queen to mark her Golden Jubilee in 2002. The one-off model, conceived by a Bentley-led consortium of British motor industry manufacturers and suppliers, is the first Bentley to be used for State occasions. It was designed with input from The Queen, The Duke of Edinburgh and Her Majesty's Head Chauffeur.
In technical terms, the car has a monocoque construction, enabling greater use to be made of the vehicle's interior space. This means the transmission tunnel now runs underneath the floor, without encroaching on the cabin and has enabled the stylists to work with a lowered roofline whilst preserving the required interior height. The rear doors have been redesigned enabling The Queen to stand up straight before stepping down to the ground. The rear seats are upholstered in Hield Lambswool Sateen cloth whilst all remaining upholstery is in light grey Connolly hide. Carpets are pale blue in the rear and dark blue in the front.
A Rolls-Royce Phantom VI was presented to The Queen in 1978 for her Silver Jubilee by the Society of Motor Manufacturers and Traders. The oldest car in the fleet is the Phantom IV, built in 1950, 5.76 litre with a straight eight engine and a Mulliner body. There is also a 1987 Phantom VI and two identical Phantom V models built in the early 1960s. The 1978 Phantom VI and the two Phantom V models have a removable exterior roof covering, which exposes an inner lining of perspex, giving a clear view of passengers.
All the cars have fittings for the shield bearing the Royal Coat of Arms and the Royal Standard. The Queen has her own mascot for use on official cars. Designed for her by the artist Edward Seago in the form of St George on a horse poised victorious over a slain dragon, it is made of silver and can be transferred from car to car as necessary. The Duke of Edinburgh's mascot, a heraldic lion wearing a crown, is adapted from his arms.
For her private use The Queen drives a Daimler Jaguar saloon or a
Vauxhall estate (like every other qualified driver, The Queen holds a driving
licence). The Duke of Edinburgh has a Range Rover and, for short journeys round
A number of Royal Mews vehicles have now been converted to run on liquefied petroleum gas (LPG) - a more environmentally friendly fuel than petrol or diesel. Converted vehicles include one of the Rolls-Royce Phantom IVs, a Daimler and The Duke of Edinburgh's Metrocab.
CARRIAGES
Housed in the Royal Mews is the collection of historic carriages and coaches, most of which are still in use to convey members of the Royal family in State ceremonial processions or on other royal occasions.
The oldest coach is the Gold State Coach, first used by George III when he opened Parliament in 1762 and used for every coronation since George IV's in 1821. As its name implies, it is gilded all over and the exterior is decorated with painted panels. It weighs four tons and requires eight horses to pull it.
The coach now used by The Queen at the State Opening of Parliament is
known as the Irish State Coach because the original was built in 1851 by the
Lord Mayor of
Other coaches include the Scottish State Coach (built in 1830 and used for Scottish and English processions), Queen Alexandra's State Coach (used to convey the Imperial State Crown to Parliament for the State Opening), the 1902 State Landau, the Australian State Coach (presented to The Queen in 1988 by the Australian people to mark Australia's bicentenary), the Glass Coach (built in 1881 and used for royal weddings) and the State and Semi-State Landaus (used in State processions).
In addition there are two barouches, broughams (which every day carry messengers on their official rounds in London), Queen Victoria's Ivory-Mounted Phaeton (used by The Queen since 1987 for her Birthday Parade) as well as a number of other carriages. In all, there are over 100 coaches and carriages in the Royal Collection.
All the carriages and coaches are maintained by craftsmen in the Royal Mews department and some of the coaches and carriages can be viewed on days when the Royal Mews is open to the public.
THE ROYAL TRAIN
Modern Royal Train vehicles came
into operation in 1977 with the introduction of four new saloons to mark The
Queen's Silver Jubilee. This continued a service which originated on
It is perhaps somewhat misleading to talk of 'the Royal Train' because the modern train consists of carriages drawn from a total of eight purpose-built saloons, pulled by one of the two Royal Class 47 diesel locomotives, Prince William or Prince Henry. The exact number and combination of carriages forming a Royal Train is determined by factors such as which member of the Royal family is travelling and the time and duration of the journey. When not pulling the Royal Train, the two locomotives are used for general duties.
The Royal Train enables members of the Royal family to travel overnight, at times when the weather is too bad to fly, and to work and hold meetings during lengthy journeys. It has modern office and communications facilities. Journeys on the train are always organised so as not to interfere with scheduled services. (Where appropriate, The Queen and other members of the Royal family use scheduled services for their official journeys.)
The carriages are a distinctive maroon with red and black coach lining and a grey roof. The carriages available include the royal compartments, sleeping, dining and support cars. The Queen's Saloon has a bedroom, bathroom and a sitting room with an entrance which opens onto the platform. The Duke of Edinburgh's Saloon has a similar layout plus a kitchen. Fitted out at the former British Rail's Wolverton Works in Buckinghamshire, Scottish landscapes by Roy Penny and Victorian prints of earlier rail journeys hang in both saloons.
A link with the earliest days of railways is displayed in the Duke of Edinburgh's Saloon: a piece of Isambard Kingdom Brunel's original broad gauge rail, presented on the 150th anniversary of the Great Western Railway. (Brunel accompanied Queen Victoria on her inaugural 1842 journey.)
The current Queen's and Duke's Saloons came into service in 1977, when they were extensively used during the Silver Jubilee royal tours. They were not, however, new. They began life in 1972 as prototypes for the standard Inter-City Mark III passenger carriage and were subsequently fitted out for their royal role at the Wolverton Works. All work on the Royal Train is normally done at Wolverton.
Railtrack PLC manages the Royal Train and owns the rolling stock. Day-to-day operations are conducted by another privatised company, English, Welsh and Scottish Railways. The cost of maintaining and using the train is met by the Royal Household from the Grant-in-Aid which it receives from Parliament each year for air and rail travel. In 2000-01 the total cost of the Royal Train was £596,000; the train made 17 journeys.
A number of former Royal Train carriages are now on display at the
ROYAL AIR TRAVEL
The history of Royal flying dates back more than 80 years to 1917, when
The Prince of Wales (later King Edward VIII) became the first member of the
Royal family to fly, in France during the First World War. The Prince went on
to become a skilful pilot. From 1930 onwards members of the Royal family made
increasing use of aircraft, largely operating from Hendon in north
Since then many members of the Royal family have learnt to fly. The Duke of York trained as a Royal Navy helicopter pilot and flew in operations during the 1982 Falklands Conflict - the first member of the Royal family to see active service since the Second World War. In an unblemished flying career spanning more than 40 years The Duke of Edinburgh has flown more different aircraft types than most pilots. The Prince of Wales, too, has accumulated many hours flying both fixed- and rotary-wing aircraft.
Royal flying was formalised on
In 1946 The King's Flight was reformed, in greater strength, at RAF Benson with four Vickers Vikings. The following year all were heavily used during the Royal Tour of South Africa.
After The Queen's accession The King's Flight was renamed The Queen's
Flight. The first helicopter - a Westland Dragonfly - was acquired in September
1954 and was quickly championed by The Duke of Edinburgh (who qualified as a
helicopter pilot the following year). It was replaced in 1958 by two Westland
Whirlwinds. In 1964 Hawker Siddeley Andovers were introduced for fixed wing
flying and saw more than 25 years of service before being superceded, in the
Flight's 50th anniversary year, by the current British Aerospace 146. In June
1969 the Whirlwinds were replaced by two
In 1995, The Queen's Flight was amalgamated with No. 32 Squadron, which was renamed No 32 (The Royal) Squadron. At the same time the squadron moved from RAF Benson to its current location at RAF Northolt.
Nowadays, official flying for members of the Royal family is provided by BAe 146 and Hawker S125 jet aircraft of No. 32 (The Royal) Squadron, based at RAF Northolt just north west of London, and the Sikorsky S-76 helicopter operated by the Royal Household from Blackbushe Aerodrome in Hampshire. In 2000-01, 32 Squadron had two four-engined BAe 146s (each of which carries 19 to 23 passengers) and five twin-engined HS 125s (each of which carries seven passengers). The Royal Travel Office based at RAF Northolt co-ordinates use of the different types of aircraft by members of the Royal family, ensuring that their use is both appropriate and cost-effective.
In 2000-01, the BAe 146 were used for Royal flying over 142 flying hours, the HS125 for 149 flying hours and the Sikorsky for 459 flying hours. No. 32 (The Royal) Squadron is primarily a Royal Air Force communications flying squadron. In fact, Royal flying accounts for less than 20% of the combined tasking of both the BAe 146 and the HS125, which are more commonly used by senior military officers and Government ministers.
The cost of official royal travel by air is met by the Royal Travel Grant-in-aid, the annual funding provided by the Department of Transport, Local Government and the Regions (DTLGR). In 2000-01, the cost of official royal travel by 32 Squadron was £1,793,000.
Aircraft of No. 32 (The Royal) Squadron have a distinctive red, blue and white livery; the Royal Household S-76 is finished in the red and blue colours of the Brigade of Guards (as were aircraft in the early days of Royal flying).
Today, the BAe 146 and HS 125 of No 32 (The Royal) Squadron and the Royal Household's S-76 are used for official duties by The Queen and, at her discretion, other members of the Royal family, continuing a tradition begun with a single aircraft more than 60 years ago.
THE ROYAL FAMILY
MEMBERS OF THE ROYAL FAMILY
In her role as Head of State The Queen is supported by members of the Royal Family, who carry out a wide range of public and official duties. The biographies in this section contain information about various members of the Royal Family, including early life and education, professional careers, official Royal work, involvement with charities and other organisations, personal interests and more
HM THE QUEEN
The Queen was born in
The Princess's early years were spent at 145 Piccadilly, the London
house taken by her parents shortly after her birth; at White Lodge in Richmond
Park; and at the country homes of her grandparents, King George V and Queen
Mary, and the Earl and Countess of Strathmore. When she was six years old, her
parents took over Royal Lodge in
HRH THE DUKE OF
Prince Philip, Duke of Edinburgh, Earl of Merioneth and Baron Greenwich,
was born Prince of Greece and Denmark in Corfu on 10 June 1921; the only son of
Prince Andrew of Greece. His paternal family is of Danish descent - Prince
Andrew was the grandson of King Christian IX of
Prince Louis married one of Queen
HRH THE PRINCE OF
The Prince of Wales, eldest son of Queen Elizabeth II and Prince Philip, Duke of Edinburgh, is heir apparent to the throne.
The Prince was born at
When, on the accession of Queen Elizabeth in 1952, he became heir apparent, Prince Charles automatically became Duke of Cornwall under a charter of King Edward III dating back to 1337, which gave that title to the Sovereign's eldest son. He also became, in the Scottish Peerage, Duke of Rothesay, Earl of Carrick and Baron Renfrew, Lord of the Isles, and Prince and Great Steward of Scotland.
The Prince was created Prince of Wales and Earl of Chester in 1958. In
1968, The Prince of Wales was installed as a Knight of the Garter. The Duke of
Rothesay (as he is known in
HRH THE DUKE OF
The
Duke of York was born on
TRH THE EARL AND COUNTESS OF
The Earl of Wessex is the third son and youngest child of The Queen and
The Duke of Edinburgh. He was born on
In March 1989, The Queen appointed Prince Edward a Commander of the Royal Victorian Order.
HRH PRINCESS ROYAL
The Princess Royal, the second
child and only daughter of The Queen and The Duke of Edinburgh, was born at
Clarence House,
She received the title Princess Royal from The Queen in June 1987; she was previously known as Princess Anne. Her Royal Highness is the seventh holder of the title.
In 1994 The Queen appointed The Princess a Lady of the Most Noble Order of the Garter. In 2000, to mark her 50th birthday, The Princess Royal was appointed to the Order of the Thistle, in recognition of her work for charities.
HRH PRINCESS ALICE
Princess Alice, Duchess of Gloucester is the widow of the late Duke of Gloucester, third son of George V.
Lady Alice Christabel Montagu Douglas Scott was born on Christmas Day,
1901 at Montagu House,
Lady Alice was educated at home until the age of 12. She then went to
school at
TRH THE DUKE AND DUCHESS OF
Born in 1944, The Duke of Gloucester is the second son of the late Duke of Gloucester and Princess Alice, Duchess of Gloucester. He is a grandson of George V and a first cousin to The Queen. He succeeded his father as Duke of Gloucester in June 1974.
In July 1972 Prince Richard (as he was then known) married Birgitte Eva
van Deurs from
The Duke and Duchess of Gloucester both carry out a large number of
official engagements each year, individually and together. They undertake
visits in regions throughout the
TRH THE DUKE AND DUCHESS OF
Born in 1935, HRH The Duke of Kent is the son of the late
In 1961 The Duke of Kent became engaged to Miss Katharine Worsley and
they married in York Minster. The couple have three children: George, Earl of
St Andrews, born in June 1962; Lady Helen Taylor, born in April 1964 and Lord
Nicholas Windsor, born on
The Duke and The Duchess of Kent undertake a large number of official Royal engagements. Each has close associations with many charities, professional bodies and other organisations.
TRH PRINCE AND PRINCESS MICHAEL OF
Prince Michael was born on
The Prince is a Knight Commander of the Royal Victorian Order.
HRH PRINCESS ALEXANDRA
Princess Alexandra was born on Christmas Day 1936 at 3,
MEMORIAL PLAQUE
HM QUEEN ELIZABETH THE QUEEN MOTHER
Her Majesty Queen Elizabeth The Queen Mother died peacefully
in her sleep on
HRH THE PRINCESS MARGARET
Her Royal Highness The Princess Margaret, Countess of
The younger daughter of King George VI and Queen Elizabeth The Queen Mother, and sister to The Queen, Princess Margaret was a hardworking and much-loved member of the Royal Family.
Read more about the Princess and her funeral and memorial services in this section.
DIANA, PRINCESS OF
Diana, Princess of
ART AND RESIDENCES
THE ROYAL COLLECTION
The Royal Collection, one of the finest art collections in the world, is held in trust by The Queen as Sovereign for her successors and the Nation. It is on public display at the principal royal residences and is shown in a programme of special exhibitions and through loans to institutions around the world.
ABOUT THE ROYAL COLLECTION
Shaped by the personal tastes of kings and queens over more than 500 years, the Royal Collection includes paintings, drawings and watercolours, furniture, ceramics, clocks, silver, sculpture, jewellery, books, manuscripts, prints and maps, arms and armour, fans, and textiles. It is held in trust by The Queen as Sovereign for her successors and the Nation, and is not owned by her as a private individual. Curatorial and administrative responsibility for the Collection is held by the Royal Collection Department, part of the Royal Household.
The Collection has largely been formed since the Restoration of the
Monarchy in 1660. Some items belonging to earlier
monarchs, for example Henry VIII, also survive. The greater
part of the magnificent collection inherited and added
to by Charles I was dispersed on Cromwell's orders during the Interregnum. The
royal patrons now chiefly associated with notable additions to the Collection
are Frederick, Prince of Wales; George III; George IV; Queen
The Royal Collection is on display at the principal royal residences, all of which are open to the public. Unlike most art collections of national importance, works of art from the Royal Collection can be enjoyed in the historic settings for which they were originally commissioned or acquired. Much of the Collection is still in use at the working royal palaces.
The official residences of The Queen have a programme of changing
exhibitions to show further areas of the Collection to the public, particularly
those items that cannot be on permanent display for conservation reasons. The
Golden Jubilee of Her Majesty The Queen will be marked by the creation of two
flagship exhibition spaces at
Loans are made to institutions throughout the world, as part of the commitment to make the Collection widely available and to show works of art in new contexts. Touring exhibitions remain an important part of the Royal Collection's work to broaden public access.
Over 3,000 objects from the Royal Collection are on long-term loan to
museums and galleries around the
The Royal Collection is the only collection of major national importance
to receive no Government funding or public subsidy and is administered by the
Royal Collection Trust, a registered charity. The Trust was set up by The
Queen in 1993 under the chairmanship of The Prince of Wales, following the
establishment of the Royal Collection Department as a new department of the
Royal Household in 1987. Income from the public opening of
THE ROYAL COLLECTION TRUST
The Royal Collection is the only collection of major national importance to receive no Government funding or public subsidy. It is administered by the Royal Collection Trust, a registered charity established by The Queen in 1993 under the chairmanship of The Prince of Wales. The role of the Trust is to ensure that the Collection is conserved and displayed to the highest standards and that public understanding of and access to the Collection is increased through exhibition, publication, education and a programme of loans.
These wide-ranging activities are funded by monies raised through the Trust's
trading arm, Royal Collection Enterprises, from the public opening of
The Royal Collection Trust determines how the income generated should be used in pursuit of its stated objectives.
The Trust's primary aims are to ensure that:
- the Collection is subject to proper custodial control;
- the Collection is maintained and conserved to the highest possible standards;
- as much of the Collection as possible can be seen by members of the public;
- the Collection is presented and interpreted so as to enhance the public's appreciation and understanding;
- appropriate acquisitions are made when resources become available.
ROYAL COLLECTION ENTERPRISES
Royal Collection Enterprises
Limited, the trading subsidiary of the Royal Collection Trust, generates income
for the presentation and conservation of the Royal Collection, and for projects
to increase public access. It is responsible for the management and financial
administration of public admission to
PUBLISHING
Publishing forms an important part of the Royal Collection Trust's ongoing programme to extend knowledge and enjoyment of the Collection's treasures. Over fifty books about the Royal Collection have been produced in recent years, ranging from scholarly exhibition catalogues to books for children.
In the mid-1990s the Royal Collection established its own imprint to build a definitive series about the royal residences and the works of art. These books are written by or in consultation with the Royal Collection's own curators.
Royal Collection publications are available from the Royal Collection
shops at the Royal Mews,
All profits from the sale of Royal Collection publications are dedicated to the Royal Collection Trust.
ROYAL RESIDENCES
The Royal Collection comprises the contents of all the royal palaces.
These include the official residences of The Queen, where the Collection plays an important part in the life of a working palace - Buckingham Palace, Windsor Castle and the Palace of Holyroodhouse (administered by the Royal Collection Trust); the unoccupied residences - Hampton Court Palace, Kensington Palace (State Apartments), Kew Palace, the Banqueting House, Whitehall and the Tower of London (administered by the Historic Royal Palaces Trust); and Osborne House (owned and administered by English Heritage).
Items from the Collection may also be seen at the private homes of The
Queen - Sandringham House and
ROYAL COLLECTION GALLERIES
Dedicated gallery spaces allow works from the Collection to be presented and interpreted in different contexts, outside their historic settings, and give public access to items that cannot be on permanent display for conservation reasons. The exhibitions in The Queen's Galleries are accompanied by full catalogues, bringing to the public new research on the subject by the Royal Collection's curators.
LATEST EXHIBITION NEWS
The new Queen's Gallery at the
A new exhibition also opened at
LOANS
Some 3,000
objects from the Royal Collection are on long-term loan to 160 institutions
across the
Every year hundreds of objects from the Collection are lent to special exhibitions worldwide. These loans support international scholarship and enable material to be seen in new contexts.
Touring exhibitions of works from the Royal Library are an important way
to broaden access to items that, for conservation reasons, cannot be on
permanent display. The millennial exhibition Ten
Religious Masterpieces was the year 2000's most
popular art exhibition outside
THE ROYAL RESIDENCES
The residences associated with today's Royal Family are divided into the Occupied Royal Residences, which are held in trust for future generations, and the Private Estates which have been handed down to The Queen by earlier generations of the Royal Family.
Beautifully furnished with treasures from the Royal Collection, most of the Royal residences are open to the public when not in official use.
These pages contain details of the history and role of these Residences and Estates, and provide information for visitors on opening times and admission prices for those that are open to the public.
ABOUT THE ROYAL RESIDENCES
Throughout the centuries,
The residences associated with today's Royal Family are divided into the Occupied Royal Residences, which are held in trust for future generations, and the Private Estates which have been handed down to The Queen by earlier generations of the Royal Family.
The State Rooms of the Palace are open to visitors during the Annual Summer Opening in August and September. They are lavishly furnished with some of the greatest treasures from the Royal Collection - paintings by Rembrandt, Rubens, Vermeer, Poussin, Canaletto and Claude; sculpture by Canova and Chantrey; exquisite examples of Sèvres porcelain, and some of the finest English and French furniture in the world.
Visits to
THE QUEEN’S GALLERY,
The Queen's Gallery at
The inaugural exhibition of the redeveloped gallery is a spectacular celebration of the individual tastes of monarchs and other members of the royal family who have shaped one of the world's greatest collections of art. Mixing the famous with the unexpected, the selection of 450 outstanding works for Royal Treasures: A Golden Jubilee Celebration has been made across the entire breadth of the Royal Collection, from eight royal residences and over five centuries of collecting.
THE ROYAL MEWS
One of the finest working stables in existence, the Royal Mews at
The Royal Mews has a permanent display of State vehicles. These include the magnificent Gold State Coach used for Coronations and those carriages used for Royal and State occasions, State Visits, weddings and the State Opening of Parliament. A State motor vehicle is also usually on display. For much of the year visitors to the Royal Mews can also see the 30 or so carriage-horses which play an important role in The Queen's official and ceremonial duties.
Within the Castle complex there are many additional attractions. In the
Drawings Gallery regular exhibitions of treasures from the Royal Library are
mounted. Another popular feature is the Queen Mary's Dolls' House, a miniature
mansion built to perfection. The fourteenth-century
In celebration of the Golden Jubilee of Her Majesty The Queen, a new
landscape garden has been created by the designer and Chelsea Gold Medallist
Tom Stuart-Smith. The garden, the first to be made at the Castle since the
1820s, transforms the visitor entrance and provides a setting for band concerts
throughout the year. The informal design takes its inspiration from
FROGMORE
Frogmore House lies in the
tranquil setting of the private Home Park of Windsor Castle. A country
residence of various monarchs since the seventeenth century, the house is
especially linked to Queen
THE
Founded as a monastery in 1128,
the
The Estate grounds, gardens and the Castle Ballroom are open to visitors from the beginning of April to the end of July each year, under the management of the Balmoral Estate Office.
Sandringham House in
Like Balmoral, the Sandringham Estate is a commercial estate managed privately on The Queen's behalf. Sandringham House, the museum and the grounds are open to visitors.
ST JAMES’S PALACE
St. James's Palace is the senior Palace of the Sovereign, with a long history as a royal residence. As the home of several members of the Royal Family and their household offices, it is often in use for official functions and is not open to the public.
HISTORIC RESIDENCES
Some of the most celebrated Royal residences used by former kings and queens can still be visited today.
The
The Banqueting House in
Other historic Royal residences which can be visited include Osborne
House, the beloved home of Queen
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Thorpe, Lewis, trans., Geoffrey of
Monmouth: The History of the Kings of
G. R. Elton, Modern Historians on British History, 1485–1945:
A Critical Bibliography, 1945–1969 (1971);
P. Catterall, British History, 1945–1987:
C. Read, Bibliography of British History: Tudor Period, 1485–1603 (2d ed. 1959, repr. 1978);
C. L. Mowat,
G. Davies, Bibliography of British History: Stuart Period, 1603–1714 (1928; 2d ed., ed. by M. F. Keeler, 1970);
Sir George Clark, ed., The
G. S. Graham, A Concise History of the
F. E. Halliday, A Concise History of
F.
M. L. Thompson, ed., The
Encyclopedia Britannica
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