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99%.

, . , , , PROLOG.

, (DEFINITE-CLAUSE GRAMMAR DCG)

( ) 1975 , . (metamorphosis grammars MGs) (qv) ( -) . , , , .

, (DCGs), , 1978 , PROLOG . , . ; , PROLOG , (qv).

(extraposition grammars XGs) , . (modifier structure grammars MSGs) , (tree grammars TGs) (puzzle grammars PGs) .

, , PROLOG, .

() (, ). ,

sentence -> noun-phrase verb-phrase

: .

PROLOG :

sentence (S1, S3): - noun-phrase (S1, S2), verb-phrase (S2, S3).

verb-phrase (S1, S2): - connects (S1, writes, S2).

connects (1, each, 2).

connects (2, author, 3).

connects (3, writes, 4).

(: (. . , , ) PROLOG . .)

:

1each2 author3 writes4

,

? - sentence (1, 4).

( ? - ( ), PROLOG) , . , , PROLOG , :

? - sentence ([each, author, writes]. [ ]).

, , - , PROLOG. , , , : , , , - . . ( ) ( ) .

, , :

nonterminal symbol -> body ( ).

body ( ) , . , . , " "- . PROLOG ( ), - .

, ({and}). , , . (N + 2)- ( ), N , - . , .

,

p(X) -> q(X).

, . PROLOG

p(X, S0, S): - q(X, S0, S).

, PROLOG , .

, "connects". ,

connects(S1, X, S2)

, S1 X S2.

p(X) -> (older), q(X), (high).

p(X, S0, S): - connects(S0, older, S1),
q(X, S1, S2),
connects(S2, high, S).

1977 , (augmented transition network grammars). , , . , , ( ) , ( ).

. ,

Chomsky is (a) writer

, to be

writer(chomsky)

, , n . , n 1 [ ] N+1 [ , N - (, )]. n 1 (, n - n- ). , .

,

Chomsky writes a book

write, book a :

for a

B

such that

B is (a) book (1)

it is true that

Chomsky writes B (2)

(1) (2) .

:

a(B, book (B), writes(Chomsky), B)).

, (1) (2) book(B) writes(Chomsky, B), .

, . , , , , , .

a q ( ) , x f1 f2,

q(x, f1, f2).

for a x such that e1, it is true that e2

e1 e2 f1 f2.

,

Chomsky writes a book for each publisher

write, (book publisher) (a each) :

for each P such that P is a publisher it is true that for a B such that B is a book, it is true that Chomsky writes B for P

each(P,

publisher(P),

a(B,

book(B),

writes-for(Chomsky, B, P))).

: (book) (publisher), , , , . 3 .

. , - , .

, (DCG)

DCGs , . , ( ). ( , , ) ( ), qv, PROLOG. . , (qv).

PROLOG. () , , . PROLOG, . - , .

, G, . , . 2 :

+

: Hodges writes for Penguin.

+

sentences(S) -> noun-phrase(NP, S2, O),

verb([subject-X | L], O1),

complements(L, O1, O2).

complements([ ], O, O) -> [ ].

complements([K-N | L], O1, O3) -> complements(L, O1, O2),

case (K),

noun-phrase(N, O2, O3).

noun-phrase(N, O2, O4) -> article(N, O1, O2, O3),

common-noun([subject-N | L], O1),

complements(L, O3, O4).

noun-phrase(PN, O, O) -> [PN], {proper-noun(PN)}.

article[A, O1, O2 and (O1, O2)] -> [a].

case(for) -> [for].

case(direct) -> [ ].

verb([subject-A, for -P], is-published-by(A,P)) -> [writes].

common-noun([subject-P], publisher(P)) -> [publisher].

proper-noun(hodges).

proper-noun(penguin).

, :

noun-phrase(PN, O, O) -> [PN], {proper-noun(PN)}.

:

noun-phrase(PN, O, O, S0, S): - connects(S0, PN, S),

proper-noun(PN).

G, , , . ( [ ] ), , , .

. .

a publisher :

noun-phrase(N, Oa, Ob) -> article(N, Oc, Od, Oe),

common-noun(N, of),

{constraints(Oa, Ob, Oc, Od, Oe, Of)}.

, - G. 3 . Ob Oa N, , a.

. a Oe,

and(Oc, Od)

Oc Od N. Oc , a, Od . , Oe Ob . Of , Oc . Oa N, . Oa Od .

. , writes is-published-by(A,P). , , A P for. a and(O1, O2) , .

G , , , :

noun([A-[ ] & author & type-X], pr(author(X))) -> no(author, A).

no(Type,GN) -> [Noun], {no1(Noun, Type, GN)}.

no1(author, author,mas-sin).

verb([(G-N)-V&type-X, dir-A-W&title-Y], pr(author(X, Y))) -> ve(writes, N).

ve(Type, N) -> [Verb], {ve1(Verb, Type, N)}.

ve1(writes, writes, sin).

adjective([A-{ }&author&type-X, prep(by)-_-[ ]&pub&type-Y], pr(published(Y,X))) -> ad(pub, A).

ad(Type, GN) -> [Adj], {ad1(Adj, Type, GN)}.

ad1(published, pub, mas-sin).

article(G-sin)-D-X, O1, O2, for([X, D] and (O1, O2)), cardinality(X, greater, 0))) art-ind(G-sin).

art-ind(mas-sin) -> [a]; [some].

(: PROLOG _.)

, , , . . . - X, - and X, - ( ) X.

,

(XGs) DCGs . XG , ( ). ,

Relative-marker . . . complement -> [that].

, that , - .

XGs . ( DCGs) , .

(MSGs) . .

( ) (TGs) .

(PGs) , . , .

- . "" , , , . , , . , , . , , .

, ICAI , . : , , . , . , , , , , , , . "" , : . , , , . , . , , , , , .

" ", , (qv), . : . , , , , ?

c , , . , . , , , .

, . .

. , , , : , , , / . . ; . , (, , ) - "". , , , . , . , , . , .

. , . , : . , - . , , .

, , , . : () , : , , , , , , .

, , , , , . , , , , , , - , , . , , - ; , , . , , , , , , .

. . - , , - . - , - . , , , , , , . (qv) , . ; : , , ICAI , , -, . ( ).

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, , , , ; , . , :

1. ,

2. , , ,

3. .

. , , , , . ( ) , (, , , ).

, . , , , . , , (10), (13). - , . - .

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, , - - , , , : . , . , , . - , . . .

:

1. ;

2. , , ();

3. .

, - , . . SHRDLU 1970 (17), , , .

When did you pick up [the green pyramid]?

While I was stacking up yhe red cube, a large red block, and a large green cube.

1970- : . .

, - , . , , :

The submarine is to the south of the port. It is approaching the port, but is not close to it. The destroyer is approaching the port too.

- but too . , , , , , .

, , - . -, , ? . , , .

Pogo cares for Hepzibah. Churchy likes her, too. Pogo gives a rose to her, which pleases her. She does not want Churchy's rose. He is jealous. He punches Pogo. He gives a rose to Hebzibah. The petals drop off. This upsets her. She cries.

, , , , , / . PROTEUS, 1974. - , . PROTEUS : , , , . , , , .

ERMA (1974)- , . , , , ? , , , , ERMA . , . 1974 , .

. , PROTEUS ERMA . -, 80- , -, , , . , 1970-. , 1975 , 1980-.

80- . , - , , , , , The big black block supports a green one. SHRDLU 1970. , , , . . , c (the green block that's supported by the big red one, a green one, a green block), .

. . , : , (qv), , , . , . , , . , , , : . , : , , .

, . : , , , , , .

- . ? ? ? ? .

. , , . "" , . . . , , ( ), , , . . , , .

, , . , , . .

Line 1: premis

Exists(x) [barber(x) and

Forall(y)..shaves(x,y) iff not.shaves(y,y)l

Line 2: existential instantiation (1)

barber(g)and Forall(y)..shaves(g,y) iff not.shaves(y,y)

Line 3: conjunction reduction (2)

Forall (y)..shaves(g,y) iff not.shaves(y,y)

Line 4: universal instantiation (3)

shaves(g,g) iff not.shaves(g,g)

Line 5: tautology (4)

shaves(g,g) and not.shaves(g,g)

Line 6: conditionalization (5,1)

(Exists(x) [barber(x) and

Forall(y)..shaves (x,y) iff not.shaves(y,y)]

implies (shave(g,g) and not.shaves(g,g))

Line 7: reductio-ad-absurdum (6)

not(Exists(x) barber(x) and

Forall(y)..shaves (x,y)

iff not.shaves(y,y))

Assume that there is some barber who shaves everyone who doesn't shave himself (and no one else). Call him Giuseppe. Now, anyone who doesn't shave himself would be shaved by Giuseppe. This would include Guiseppe himself. That is, he would shave himself, if and only if he did not shave himself, which is a conradiction. Therefore it is false, there is no such barber.

, , , Y ("... "). . , , ( ) . , , , .

- . , , , , . - - , : , - , "" , . , , , .

, , . , . , . , . : ( ), , .

(exists x

(and barber(x)

(forall y

(if-and-only-if shaves(x,y)

(not shaves(y, y) )))))

. (" X, ..."), ("...some barber)? if-and-only-if ? barber(x), -, . , , .

, "" , - , , , , " / " . - . , , . - : ; . , , , "shaves(x,y)" "x shaves y."

, , , , "" , , .

. (qv) , , : , . , , , 13 , , , . . , , . , "" "", "", "", "", "", "", , .

, ., . - , , , ( , , .

Kennedy only got a small number of delegates in the elections on 20 February. Cater just lost by a small number of votes. He has several delegates more than Kennedy in total.

. , "" "", ; , , . . 1975 . , "" - , , - , . , . " " , . - .

Wall Street securities markets meandered upward through most of the motning, before being pushed downhill late in the day yesterday. The stock market closed out the day with a small loss and turned in mixed showing in moderate trading.

. : "a small loss", "a mixed showing", "in moderate trading". , : "Wall Street securities markets", "meandered upward ", "be pushed downhill", "late in the day". , S-V-Advp : () () ( ).

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1. (, );

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() .

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( ) , , .

, , , , - "". . , , , , . , , .

, , , . , , . , , : . , , : , , , . , . , .

() "" (), . . : . , , , : , .

, , , , .

: (). . 1970, . , , , . . , . -, - ( ). , ( "" ). , " ", , , ; . , .

, , . , "" , , . - ( ) , . , .

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. , , . , 30 . . , . , , - .

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() : Time flies like an arrow , , , , .. flies .

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: in He ran the mile in four minutes/He ran the mile in the Olympics , , .. .

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(Literalness): Can you open the door? I feel cold , . yes/no, .

, NLP - - . NLP . , Jack took the bread from the supermarket shelf, paid for it, and left , What did Jack pay for?, What did Jack leave? Did Jack have the bread with him when he left? , .

NLP , .. . , , , terminals How many terminals are there in the order?.

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S <present> the <attribute> of <ship>

<present> what is|[can you] tell me

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The dog greedily ate the bone.

Greedily, the dog ate the bone.

, .

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.

. . . , :

Sue thinks that Bob believes that a dog is eating a bone.

If a dog is eating a bone, it is unwise to try to take it away from him.

think believe : , dog is eating a bone, , -Bob believes that a dog is eating a bone. . , , . 4 . , (EXP) - experiencer, , THINK , BELIEVE , EAT DOG (AGNT). , - , , - .

, . dog is eating a bone, It is unwise to try to take it away from him. to try to take , . it is unwise. it, him bone dog. . .

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, , - PLNLP (Programming Language for Natural Language Processing) , . . PLNLP :

1. .

2. .

. . . NETL, , . , . .

.

1 .

C . . 4 , .

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, . ( ), . , , .

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- , . , , , . . : .

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- . , .. . , .. . , . . . , : , - , , . 50/ ( ) 10/, . , . , . , , , .. , . . .

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, , . , . , . , . , .. , , . , ( , , , ). , . . .. , , , (LPC - linear predictive coding). : , , , , , , . , . , , . : , , . , , .

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, , . . , , . , .. , , .

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. , (, ), , . , . . ( , ) , . , ( 100 /). , , . , , . .

3 .

. , , . , . , , , - . , , , , , - . , , , .

4 MITalk.

. 60- . , MITalk , . , -, , .

5

.

, " ". "%" "&", "Mr" "Nov" . , , . , , , . , , , .

. . , . -, , . , , ( parfait, tortilla). , . . , /th/ (thin, thesis, thimble). , the, this, there, these, those, etc. . /f/ , "of". . "shave", "behave" /e/ , "have" . , /s/ "atlas", "canvas" , is, was, has . , , . , . , . , , .. . , . , . , , . , . , , . MITalk , , . , , , . "snowplows" , "relearn" . , . 10,000 . . , .. , . , . . , "dog" "cat" /s/ . , . , . - -. , , . "t" "h" , "hothouse" /th/ . /ea/ -, changeable . MITalk . . , : mice, fish. . 95-98% . .

"-"

MITalk . , , , , "snow". , . , . , , , "-". , , . . - . , , . , , , .

, , . - . , , . , /ea/ 14 (reach, tear, steak, leather).

MITalk . 25 . , . , , "invalid" . , . , , , , "engineer". , .

MITalk , 600 . , . , . "-" . , "recieved" , .

.

. , .. . . , . , (clause-level parsing) . , (phrase-level parsing), , - . , "he saw the man in the park with a telescope", .

, : , . MITalk (augmented-transition-network grammas). , . , . , , , .

.

. "the", . , . .

6 .

, MITalk . . , .

.

- ( ), . , , . , . , . , , . , ( ). , , . . . , ( , might ), ; . , , . , .. .

.

, , . 25, 5 - 10 . 100 . , ( LPC-). 10 .

7 .

, . , , - . , . , , . , .

- . , . , , , , . , , . , , , , . . , , . "" , , .

, , , , . , . , , , , . , - , . , , , . , . . , . , . , , , - , . , . , , . , - , . , . , , , . , , - , , . , . , , . . .

, ( , , . .) . , , . .

, , . .

A John went to a restaurant

He asked the waitress for a hamburger

He paid the tip & left

B John went to a park

He asked the midget for a mouse

He picked up the box & left

, . , . , . .

SAM , . , SAM , , , .

Did John sit down in the restaurant ?

Did John eat the hamburger ?

, SAM . , .

:

C He plunked down $5 at the window .

She tried to give him $ 2.50 , but he wouldn't take it .

So when they got inside , she bought him a large bag of popcorn .

, .

. . , . , , , , . - .

FRAMP , , . , , .

, , .

, , .

, . , , . .

, . , , . , , . , / , , , / , , / , / . , , , , , .

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: , . , - . . , , . - , - .

. , - , .

, , . , 8 20 , . , . , .

, . , , , , , .

, . , , .

. , KRYPTON , , - . , . Loops , , .

, , - , / / , .

-

- , , - , , , . , .

. , .

- , , , , . (Noam Chomsky) 50- . (Zellig Harris), . , , - , , . .

, - - . , - () . (, John will eat the ice cream , John , , will eat the ice cream). , (, Will John eat the ice cream ).

, , , , . , .

, :

(, what eat What will John eat)

, , (, They are flying planes flying )

John will eat the ice-cream , , , Will John eat the ice-cream. : Will the ice-cream be eaten by John. , be by, .

, - . :

1) S NP Aux VP 2) VP Verb NP

3) NP Name 4) NP Determiner Noun

Auxiliary will 6) Verb eat

7) Determiner the 8) Noun ice cream

9) Name John

, (S) - (NP), (Aux) (VP). , S NP Aux VP. , , , . , ( ). ; , , .

ice cream , . ; . , S, NP, VP, Name , .

-, . , - , S, NP VP, .

, , , S , . , S . :

, , , , The ice cream ate John took. - , , . , V took , NP. : eat , - . , 1965 - , . - , : , .

, , . , : , , , ; .

-, , ; , , . , , . , :. , , : Will John eat the ice-cream.

, , X wh Y, X Y - , wh - - , wh, , who, what what ice cream. - wh . , John will eat what, , John will eat X, what - wh, - Y. , . wh , What John will eat. , - , What will John eat. , .

, . wh :

: (X,wh,Y)

(1,2,3)

: (2,3,1)

. , , , . , . 70- . 5 ARPA, , . , . , , . , , , , . , , , , . , , , . , , , . , , , , , , , , .

() , , , , "" . - , , , -, , . , , . , . , , , - , . , ( , ) , .

, (), .. , . , , , , ( ) . : - - - - - - - - . , , () .

, . , , . , , , , . . , , , [f] [v]. , , , . - , . , ARPA 1970-.

, , , , , , , , . , .. , , , , , . , . , did "you" : /dld/ /ju:/. , - , [dIje]; c did "you". , , , [dj] [j], "you" . , , , , . , /houmhelp/ /m/ /h/, /mh/.

, . , , , , - . APRA , .

, , , , , , /s/ /z/, .

, . , , - . , , , , , . , , .

. , , . , .

-

, , - - . - , . . , - , ; , , , ; . , /d/ /di/ /du/ , .. . , /d/ . : - . , , , , . -, , , . -, . , - . -, - , ... , , . , - . ARPA , - , , .

ARPA , - . . - , , 70% , .

, , , , , , , , / . ARPA. , , , . , , . - ; , . ; , . , ; , , , . . , , , . , , , .

, , , , . .

,

, , , , . , . , , . , ARPA , , . , . , - . , , , , . , , , . , , . , - . , . , , ; , , , , HAERSAY-11 HARPY, .

, ; , , , , . , , . , , , , - . (), .

. , .. , , , , , . , - /p/ /b/, /t/, -, put "but". , , , . , , " He gave her dog biscuits ", "her . , .

- , , , .

, , ; .. , . , , ; , , , , , . , , , . , , , . , , , , / . , , .. . , .. , , , , , .

, . , . . , .. . , , (blackboard systems) .

, , . -, - , . , - - . , , . - , , . , , - , , . , ; , , . , . , , , . , , , . , . , , , , , , , , , , HEARSAY-11.

. , , , HWIM. - , , . , , . , , , , .

ARPA 70- , , . - , . , , . , , , , . - , , ARPA. , , .

, ARPA, HARPY, HWIM, HTEARSAY-11, SRI/SDC. HARPY , . , HARPY , , , . HEARSAY-11 . , KEAL MYRTILLE-11 EVAR . , ARPA . , . , Bell, , . , , 127 .



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